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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Blackstone, William Sir, 1723-1780.

Blackstone's commentaries: with notes of reference to the constitution and laws, of the federal government of the United States, and of the Commonwealth of Virginia: in five volumes, with an appendix to each volume, containing short tracts upon such subjects as appeared necessary to form a connected view of the laws of Virginia as a member of the federal union / by St. George Tucker ;

with an introduction by Paul Finkelman and David Cobin. p. cm.

Originally published: Philadelphia : William Young Birch, Abraham Small, 1803.

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 1-886363-15-3 (set: alk. paper)

1. Law—Great Britain. 2. Law—United States. 3. Law—Virginia. I. Tucker, St. George, 1752-1828. II. title. KF385.B55 1996 349.73—dc20

[347.3] 96-12566 CIP

BLACKSTONE'S COMMENTARIES:

WITH

NOTES OF REFERENCE,

TO

THE CONSTITUTION AND LAWS,

OF THE

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES;

AND OF THE

COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA.

IN FIVE VOLUMES.

WITH AN APPENDIX TO EACH VOLUME,

CONTAINING

SHORT TRACTS UPON SUCH SUBJECTS AS APPEARED NECESSARY TO FORM A CONNECTED

VIEW OF THE LAWS OF VIRGINIA,

AS A MEMBER OF THE FEDERAL UNION.

BY ST. GEORGE TUCKER,

PROFESSOR OF LAW, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WILLIAM AND MARY, AND ONE OF THE JUDGES OF THE GENERAL COURT IN VIRGINIA.

PHILADELPHIA:

PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL, NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET. ROBERT CARR, PRINTER.

1803.

District of Pennsylvania: to wit.

BE it remembered, That on the ninth day of May, in the twenty-seventh Year of the Independence of the United States of America, William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the right whereof they claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit:

"Blackstone's Commentaries: with Notes of Reference, to the Constitution and Laws of the Federal Government of the United States, and of the Commonwealth of Virginia. In Five Volumes. With an Appendix to each Volume, containing, Short Tracts upon such Subjects as appeared necessary to form a connected

View of the Laws of Virginia, as a Member of the Federal Union, By St. George Tucker, Professor of Law, in the University of William and Mary, and one of the Judges of the General Court in Virginia."

In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, intituled, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies, of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act entituled, "An Act supplementary to an Act, entituled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other Prints." (L.S.) D. CALDWELL,

Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The Editor having procured a copy of a late Edition of Blackstone's Commentaries, published in London, by Edward Christian, Esq. has made a selection of such of the Notes, contained in that Edition, as appeared to him most likely to be of use to an American Student... In the Second Volume, the selection has been more copious than in any of the others:

they are distinguished, by his name being subjoined to the end of each Note.

MAY 12, 1803.

COMMENTARIES

ON THE

LAWS OF ENGLAND.

IN FOUR BOOKS.

BY SIR WILLIAM BLACKSTONE, KNT.

ONE OF THE JUSTICES OF HIS MAJESTY'S COURT OF COMMON PLEAS.

WITH THE LAST CORRECTIONS OF THE AUTHOR.

TO THE READER.

Messrs. Pleasants and Pace, having, since this Edition of the Commentaries has been in the press, published a new collection of the LAWS OF VIRGINIA, containing, not only, all the acts printed in the edition of 1794, but likewise, a very considerable number of acts passed since that period ; the Editor avails himself of the opportunity, thereby afforded him, to assist the researches of the student, in consulting any act contained in that collection, which may be referred to in the notes, or appendices to this work. For this purpose, he has formed the following table, shewing, the correspondence between the edition of 1794, and subsequent sessions acts, and the chapters in the latter collection ; by means of which, any act contained in that collection, and referred to in the following notes, may readily be found.

TABLE.

N. B. The chapters in Pleasant's and Pace's collection correspond with the chapters, as numbered in the edition of 1794, from chap. 1, to chap. 181, inclusive: the correspondence between the succeeding chapters and the Sessions acts, as published annually, will appear below.

* There is a small error in the numbering of these three chapters in Pleasant and Pace's Edition; they are here referred to as numbered.

CONTENTS

OF BOOK FIRST. PART SECOND.

OF THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS.

CHAP. I.

Of the Absolute Rights of Individuals ............. 121

CHAP. II.

Of the Parliament ....................... 146

CHAP. III. Of the King, and his Title .................. 190

CHAP. IV.

Of the King's Royal Family. .................. 219

CHAP. V. Of the Councils belonging to the King ............. 227

CHAP VI.

Of the King's Duties. ..................... 233

CHAP. VII.

Of the King's Prerogative ................... 237

CHAP. VIII. Of the King's Revenue .................... 281

CHAP. IX. Of Subordinate Magistrates .................. 338

CHAP. X. Of the People, whether Aliens, Denizens, or Natives . . . . 366

CHAP. XI.

Of the Clergy .......................... 376

CHAP. XII. Of the Civil State ....................... 396

CHAP. XIII.

Of the Military and Maritime States ............. 408

CHAP. XIV.

Of Master and Servant .................... 422

CONTENTS.

CHAP. XV. Of Husband and Wife ..................... 433

CHAP. XVI. Of Parent and Child ...................... 446

CHAP. XVII.

Of Guardian and Ward .................... 460

CHAP. XVIII.

Of Corporations ........................ 467

THE EDITOR'S APPENDIX.

NOTE G.

Of the Right of Conscience; and of the Freedom of Speech, FO. and of the Press ...................... 3

NOTE H. Of the State of Slavery, in Virginia ............. 31

NOTE I.

Abstract of the Bill for the more General Diffusion of Knowledge in Virginia ...................... 86

NOTE K.

Of the Right of Expatriation ................. 90

NOTE L. Of the Rights of Aliens .................... 98

NOTE M.

Summary View of the Laws relative to the Glebes, and Churches in Virginia ......................... 104

COMMENTARIES

ON THE

LAWS OF ENGLAND.

BOOK THE FIRST.

PART THE SECOND.

COMMENTARIES

ON THE LAWS OF ENGLAND.

BOOK THE FIRST.

OF THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS.

CHAPTER THE FIRST. OF THE ABSOLUTE RIGHTS OF INDIVIDUALS.

THE objects of the laws of England are so very numerous and extensive, that, in order to consider them with any tolerable ease and perspicuity, it will be necessary to distribute them methodically, under proper and distinct heads; avoiding as much as possible, divisions too large and comprehensive on the one hand, and too trifling and minute on the other; both of which are equally productive of confusion.

Now, as municipal law is a rule of civil conduct, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong; or as Cicero,a and after him our Bracton,b have expressed it, sanctio justa, jubens honesta et prohibens contraria; it follows, that the primary and principal objects of the law are RIGHTS and WRONGS. In the prosecution, therefore, of these commentaries, I shall follow this very simple and obvious division; and shall in the first place consider the rights that are commanded, and secondly the wrongs that are forbidden, by the laws of England.

a 11 Phillip. 13. b l. 1. c. 3.

Rights, are, however, liable to another subdivision: being either, first, those which concern and are annexed to the persons of men, and are then called jura personarum or the rights of persons; or they are, secondly, such as a man may acquire over external objects, or things unconnected with his person, which are stiled jura rerum or the rights of things. Wrongs also are divisible into, first, private wrongs, which, being an infringement merely of particular rights, concern individuals only, and are called civil injuries; and secondly, public wrongs, which being a breach of general and public rights, affect the whole community, and are called crimes and misdemesnors.

The objects of the laws of England falling into this fourfold division, the present commentaries will therefore consist of the four following parts: 1. The rights of persons; with the means whereby such rights may be either acquired or lost. 2. The rights of things; with the means also of acquiring and losing them. 3. Private wrongs, or civil injuries; with the means of redressing them by law. 4. Public wrongs, or crimes and misdemesnors; with the means of prevention and punishment.

We are now, first, to consider the rights of persons; with the means of acquiring and losing them.

Now the rights of persons that are commanded to be observed by the municipal law are of two sorts: first, such as are due from every citizen, which are usually called civil duties; and, secondly, such as belong to him, which is the more popular acceptation of rights or jura. Both may indeed be comprised in this latter division; for, as all social duties are of a relative nature, at the same time that they are due from one man, or set of men, they must also be due to another. But I apprehend it will be more clear and easy, to consider many of them as duties required from, rather than as rights belonging to particular persons. Thus, for instance, allegiance is usually, and therefore most easily, considered as the duty of the people, and protection as the duty of the magistrate; and yet they are reciprocally, the rights as well as duties of each other.

Allegiance is the right of the magistrate, and protection the right of the people.1

Persons also are divided by the law into either natural persons, or artificial. Natural persons are such as the God of nature formed us: artificial are such as are created and devised by human laws for the purposes of society and government, which are called corporations or bodies politic.

The rights of persons considered in their natural capacities, are also of two sorts, absolute, and relative. Absolute, which are such as appertain and belong to particular men, merely as individuals or single persons: relative, which are incident to them as members of society, and standing in various relations to each other. The first, that is, absolute rights, will be the subject of the present chapter.

1. But here it is to be remembered, that a distinction arises in our government between personal allegiance, and that which is due to the constitution and government. In monarchical governments allegiance is supposed to be due to the person of the monarch .... in ours, it is due to the constitution and government, and not to the persons of those who administer the government. See page 368, Note, 2.

In America, there are rights, which appertain to one man without any correlative duty, owing to any other man. Though perhaps there is a correlative duty owing to the commonwealth. Thus every free white male, aged twenty-one years, and possessing a certain quantity of freehold lands in Virginia, hath an indubitable right to vote for any person to represent him as a member of congress, or of the state legislature: but no other person is authorised to claim the exercise of that right from him; much less, is there any other person to whom the exercise of it is a duty. Nevertheless, I conceive it to be a duty which the state has a right to compel him to perform.

"Every right is annexed to a certain character or relation, which each individual bears in society. The rights of magistrates, legislators, judges, husbands, fathers, heirs, purchasers, and occupants, are all dependent upon the respective characters of the claimants." ... Christian.

By the absolute rights of individuals we mean those which are so in their primary and strictest sense; such as would belong to their persons merely in a state of nature, and which every man is entitled to enjoy, whether out of society or in it. But with regard to the absolute duties, which man is bound to perform, considered as a mere individual, it is not to be expected that any human municipal law should at all explain or enforce them. For the end and intent of such laws being only to regulate the behaviour of mankind, as they are members of society, and stand in various relations to each other, they have consequently no concern with any other but social or relative duties. Let a man, therefore, be ever so abandoned in his principles, or vitious in his practice, provided he keeps his wickedness to himself, and does not offend against the rules of public decency, he is out of the reach of human laws. But if he makes his vices public, though they be such as seem principally to affect himself, (as drunkenness, or the like), they then become by the bad example they set, of pernicious effects to society; and, therefore, it is then the business of human laws to correct them. Here the circumstance of publication is what alters the nature of the case. Public sobriety is a relative duty, and therefore enjoined by our laws; private sobriety is an absolute duty, which, whether it be performed or not, human tribunals can never know; and therefore they can never enforce it by any civil sanction. But with respect to rights, the case is different. Human laws define and enforce, as well those rights which belong to a man considered as an individual, as those which belong to him considered as related to others.

For the principal aim of society is to protect individuals in the enjoyment of those absolute rights, which were vested in them by the immutable laws of nature; but which could not be preserved in peace without the mutual assistance and intercourse, which is gained by the institution of friendly and social communities. Hence it follows, that the first and primary end of human laws is to maintain and regulate these absolute rights of individuals. Such rights as are social and relative, result from, and are posterior to, the formation of states and societies: so that to maintain and regulate these, is clearly a subse

quent consideration. And, therefore, the principal view of human laws is, or ought always to be, to explain, protect, and enforce such rights as are absolute, which in themselves are few and simple; and then such rights as are relative, which, arising from a variety of connexions, will be far more numerous and more complicated. These will take up a greater space in any code of laws, and hence may appear to be more attended to, though in reality they are not, than the rights of the former kind. Let us, therefore, proceed to examine how far all laws ought, and how far the laws of England actually do take notice of these absolute rights, and provide for their lasting security.

The absolute rights of man, considered as a free agent, endowed with discernment to know good from evil, and with power of choosing those measures which appear to him to be most desirable, are usually summed up in one general appellation, and denominated the natural liberty of mankind. This natural liberty consists properly in a power of acting as one thinks fit, without any restraint or control, unless by the law of nature;

being a right inherent in us by birth, and one of the gifts of God to man at his creation, when he endued him with the faculty of free-will. But every man, when he enters into society, gives up a part of his natural liberty, as the price of so valuable a purchase;

and, in consideration of receiving the advantages of mutual commerce, obliges himself to conform to those laws, which the community has thought proper to establish. And this species of legal obedience and conformity is infinitely more desirable than that wild and savage liberty which is sacrificed to obtain it. For no man, that considers a moment, would wish to retain the absolute and uncontrolled power of doing whatever he pleases:

the consequence of which is, that every other man would also have the same power; and then there would be no security to individuals in any of the enjoyments of life. Political, therefore, or civil liberty, which is that of a member of society, is no other than natural liberty so far restrained by human laws (and no farther) as is necessary and expedient for the general advantage

of the public.c 2 Hence we may collect that the law, which restrains a man from doing mischief to his fellow-citizens, though it diminishes the natural,3 increases the civil liberty of mankind;

c Facultas ejus, quod cuique facere libet, nisi quid jure prohibetur. Inst. 1. 3. 1.

2. "Political liberty consists in the power of doing whatever does not injure another: the exercise of the natural rights of every man has no other limits than those which are necessary to secure to every other man the free exercise of the same rights; and these limits are determinable only by the law." Declaration of the

rights of man, and of citizens, by the national assembly of France ....

1789.

3. Man in a state of nature has no more right to do mischief, than in a state of society: the restrictions of society, therefore, do not diminish any natural right, when they prohibit the doing mischief:

they only restrain the exercise of a natural power to which no right was ever annexed. We must be careful, therefore, not to confound the term natural liberty, with natural right. Man, when he enters into society, may sacrifice a portion of his natural liberty in the sense here spoken of, without a particle of his natural rights. "It is a long received doctrine, that in a sate of society, or government, men give up a portion of their natural rights, in order to have the residue secured to them; by which it must be understood, that the rights possessed and enjoyed in a state of government, are necessarily fewer than those possessed, in what has been called, a state of nature. A man who adopts this opinion, is naturally enough inclined to look on government with a jealous eye; to esteem it, at best, but as the least of two evils; and to feel the restraints, or obligations, imposed by it, as an abridgement of his natural liberty. This position conveys an idea altogether untrue, and highly derogatory to the noblest of all human institutions; an institution so fundamentally necessary, that without it, no other could take place, of any nature whatever. Without it, men must forever remain in a state of savage ignorance and wretchedness; in a condition more miserable, and more contemptible than that of the vilest brutes, or reptiles. If we could suppose men in that state, which is falsely called a state of nature, their rights would be extremely few, of very little value, and wholly destitute of protection and security. And unless we include among the natural rights of man, his right of connecting himself with others in a state of civil society, his existence would be too wretched to be worth preserving. By legitimate government, his rights, so far from being diminished, are multiplied

but that every wanton and causeless restraint of the will of the subject, whether practised by a monarch, a nobility, or a popular assembly, is a degree of tyranny: nay, that even laws themselves, whether made with or without our consent, if they regulate and constrain our conduct in matters of mere indifference, without any good end in view, are regulations destructive of liberty;

whereas, if any public advantage can arise from observing such precepts, the control of our private inclinations, in one or two particular points, will conduce to preserve our general freedom in others of more importance, by supporting that state of society, which alone can secure our independence. Thus the statute of king Edward IV,d which forbad the fine gentlemen of those times (under the degree of a lord) to wear pikes upon their shoes or boots of more than two inches in length, was a law that savoured of oppression; because, however ridiculous the fashion then in use might appear, the restraining it by pecuniary penalties

d 3 Edw. IV. c. 5.

a thousand fold. To government he is indebted for every comfort, every convenience, and every enjoyment of life. He binds himself to certain duties, which are the conditions by which he becomes entitled to the benefits of government. But these duties, except on extraordinary occasions, are extremely light, whilst the benefits they procure are immense in value, and almost infinite in number. Were it possible in the jurisprudence of a democratic, government, to deprive men of the benefits of government in exact proportion to their neglect of their obligations to it, it would be a code founded in severe justice; and every one would become sensible, how incomparably more numerous and valuable are the rights acquired by the stipulations of compact, than those which belong to a state of nature. All would then be induced to make a proper estimate of the blessings of a well ordered community, and to be in love with legitimate government, as the fountain of true liberty, and of every thing valuable inhuman life. No one should dare to talk of the rights of man who is unwilling to perform the duties of a citizen. Such a person would, in strict justice, have no rights, but those of a savage: for the essential rights of man are acquired by purchase, and the price must be paid to make the title good. This price is, obedience to the laws." Oration in commemoration of American independence, July 4, 1795, by T. T. T.

of South-Carolina.

could serve no purpose of common utility. But the statute of king Charles II,e which prescribes a thing seemingly as indifferent, (a dress for the dead, who are all ordered to be buried in woollen) is a law consistent with public liberty; for it encourages the staple trade, on which in great measure depends the universal good of the nation. So that laws, when prudently framed, are by no means subversive, but rather introductive of liberty;

for (as Mr. Locke has well observed)f where there is no law there is no freedom. But then, on the other hand, that constitution or frame of government, that system of laws, is alone calculated to maintain civil liberty, which leaves the subject entire master of his own conduct, except in those points wherein the public good requires some direction or restraint.

The idea and practice of this political or civil liberty flourish in their highest vigour in these kingdoms, where it falls little short of perfection, and can only be lost or destroyed by the folly or demerits of it's owner: the legislature, and of course the laws of England, being peculiarly adapted to the preservation of this inestimable blessing even in the meanest subject. Very different from the modern constitutions of other states, on the continent of Europe, and from the genius of the imperial law; which in general are calculated to vest an arbitrary and despotic power, of controlling the actions of the subject, in the prince, or in a few grandees. And this spirit of liberty is so deeply implanted in our constitution, and rooted even in our very soil, that a slave or a negro, the moment he lands in England, falls under the protection of the laws; and so far becomes a freeman;g though the master's right to his service may possibly still continue.4

e 30 Car. II. st. 1. c. 3. g Salk. 666. See ch. 14.

f On Gov. p. 2. §. 57.

4. The act for preventing the further importation of slaves, declared all slaves thereafter imported into Virginia by sea or land, contrary to the true intent of that act, to become free upon such importation. L. V. 1778, c. 1, but a subsequent act unfortunately extended the period when they should become free to twelve months. L. V. 1785, c. 77. Edi. 1794, c. 103.

The absolute rights of every Englishman, (which, taken in a political and extensive sense, are usually called their liberties) as they are founded on nature and reason, so they are coeval with our form of government; though subject at times to fluctuate and change; their establishment (excellent as it is) being still human. At some times we have seen them depressed by overbearing and tyrannical princes; at others so luxuriant as even to tend to anarchy, a worse state than tyranny itself, as any government is better than none at all. But the vigour of our free constitution has always delivered the nation from these embarrassments:

and as soon as the convulsions consequent on the struggle have been over, the balance of our rights and liberties has settled to it's proper level; and their fundamental articles have been from time to time asserted in parliament, as often as they were thought to be-in danger.

First, by the great charter of liberties, which was obtained, sword in hand, from king John, and afterwards, with some alterations, confirmed in parliament by king Henry the third, his son. Which charter contained very few new grants; but, as Sir Edward Cokeh observes, was for the most part declaratory of the principal grounds of the fundamental laws of England. Afterwards by the statute called confirmatio cartarum,i whereby the great charter is directed to be allowed as the common law; all judgments contrary to it are declared void; copies of it are ordered to be sent to all cathedral churches, and read twice a year to the people; and sentence of excommunication is directed to to be as constantly denounced against all those that by word, deed, or counsel, act contrary thereto, or in any degree infringe it .... .

Next, by a multitude of subsequent corroborating statutes (Sir Edward Coke, I think, reckons thirty-two),k from the first Edward to Henry the fourth. Then, after a long interval, by the petition of right; which was a parliamentary declaration of the liberties of the people, assented to by king Charles the first in the beginning of his reign. Which was closely followed by the still more ample concessions made by that unhappy prince to his parliament, before the fatal rapture between them; and by the many salutary laws, particularly the habeas corpus act, passed under

h 2 Inst. proem. i 25 Edw. I. k 2 Inst. proem.

Charles the second. To these succeeded the bill of rights, or declaration delivered by the lords and commons to the prince and princess of Orange, 13 February, 1688, and afterwards enacted in parliament, when they became king and queen: which declaration concludes in these remarkable words; "and they do claim, demand, and insist upon, all and singular the premises, as their undoubted rights and liberties." And the act of parliament itselfl recognizes "all and singular the rights and liberties asserted and claimed in the said declaration to be the true, antient, and indubitable rights of the people of this kingdom." Lastly, these liberties were again asserted at the commencement of the present century, in the act of settlement, whereby the crown was limited to his present majesty's illustrious house:

and some new provisions were added, at the same fortunate aera, for better securing our religion, laws, and liberties; which the statute declares to be "the birthright of the people of England," according to the antient doctrine of the common law.n

Thus much for the declaration of our rights and liberties5 .... The rights themselves, thus defined by these several statutes, consist in a number of private immunities, which will appear, from what has been premised, to be indeed no other, than either that residuum of natural liberty, which is not required by the

n Plowd. 55.

l 1 W. & M. st. 2. c. 2. m 12 & 13 W. III. c. 2.

5. The declarations of rights, of the people of the United States are contained, 1st. In the unanimous declaration of independence, by the congress of the United States. 2dly. In the articles of confederation and perpetual union, concluded between the several states; which were perhaps abrogated. 3dly. By the constitution of the United States, as approved and ratified by the several state conventions. 4thly. By the amendments of the constitution of the United States, proposed by congress in March, 1789, and since ratified and confirmed by the several states in the union. 5thly. By the bill of rights, and constitutions of the respective states, and 6thly. and lastly, by legislative acts, and declarations of the state legislatures. The contents of them respectively, have either been already noticed, or will occasionally be touched upon in the course of the notes in this edition.

laws of society to be sacrificed to public convenience; or else those civil privileges, which society hath engaged to provide, in lieu of the natural liberties so given up by individuals. These, therefore, were formerly, either by inheritance or purchase, the rights of all mankind; but, in most other countries of the world being now more or less debased and destroyed, they at present may be said to remain, in a peculiar and emphatical manner, the rights of the people of England. And these may be reduced to three principal or primary articles; the right of personal security, the right of personal liberty, and the right of private property: because, as there is no other known method of compulsion, or of abridging man's natural free will, but by an infringement or diminution of one or other of these important rights, the preservation of these, inviolate, may justly be said to include the preservation of our civil immunities in their largest and most extensive sense.

I. The right of personal security consists in a person's legal and uninterrupted enjoyment of his life, his limbs, his body, his health, and his reputation.6

1. Life is the immediate gift of God, a right inherent by nature in every individual; and it begins in contemplation of law a soon as an infant is able to stir in the mother's womb. For if a woman is quick with child, and by a potion or otherwise, killeth it in her womb; or if any one beat her, whereby the child dieth in her body, and she is delivered of a dead child;

this, though not murder, was by the antient law homicide or manslaughter.o(6) But the modern law doth not look upon this of-

o Si aliquis mulierem pregnantem percusserit, vel el venenum dederit, per quod fecerit abortivam; si puerperium jam formatum fucrit, et maxime si fuerit animatum, facit homicidium. Bracton. l. 3. c. 21.

6. The tight of personal security in the United States, in addition to those enumerated by the commentator, seems also to consist in the uninterrupted enjoyment of his conscience in all matters respecting religion, and of his opinions in those of a civil nature. See C. U. S. Art. 6. Amendments to C. U.S. Art. 3. Bill of rights, Art. 12, 16. This subject will be more fully discussed in a subsequent note.

(6) But if the child be born alive, and afterwards die in consequence of the potion, or beating, it will be murder. 3. Inst. 50. But quere, how shall this be proved?

fence in quite so atrocious a light, but merely as a heinous misdemesnor.p

An infant in ventre sa mere, or in the mother's womb, is supposed in law to be born for many purposes. It is capable of having a legacy, or a surrender of a copyhold estate made to it. It may have a guardian assigned to it;q and it is enabled to have an estate limited to it's use, and to take afterwards by such limitation, as if it were then actually born.r 7 And in this point the civil law agrees with ours.s(7)

2. A man's limbs (by which for the present we only understand those members which may be useful to him in fight, and the loss of which alone amounts to mayhem by the common law) are also the gift of the wise Creator, to enable him to protect himself from external injuries in a state of nature. [T]o these therefore he has a natural inherent right; and they cannot be wantonly destroyed or disabled without a manifest breach of civil liberty.8

p 3 Inst. 50. q Stat. 12. Car. II. c. 24. r Stat. 10 and 11 W. III. c. 16.

s Qui in utero sunt, in jure civili intelliguntur in rerum natura esse, cum de eorum commodo agatur. Ff. 1. 5. 26.

7. "It may have a distributive share of intestate property, even with the half blood, 1. Ves. p. 81. It is capable of taking a devise of land. 2 Atk. 117. Frem. 244, 293. It takes under a marriage settlement a provision made for children at the time of the death of the father. 1 Ves. 85, and it hath been lately decided, that marriage, and the birth of a posthumous child, amount to a revocation of a will executed before marriage." .... Christian.

(7.) Herewith the laws of Virginia also agree. V. L. 1748. c. 2. Edi. 1769, 1785. c. 62, 85. Edi. 1794. c. 90, 95. By the laws of England also, an infant in ventre sa mere seems capable of taking as heir, provided it be afterwards born alive. 2 B. c. 208. But in Virginia the law is now altered in that respect, unless the infant be the child of the person from whom the inheritance shall descend. V. L. 1785. c. 60. Edi. 1794. c. 93. §. 13.

8. Such breaches are accordingly severely punishable, in some instances by our laws, as will be shewn in it's proper place. L. U. S. 1 Cong. 2 Sess. c. 9. §. 13. L. V. 1752. c. 6. 1788. c. 28. Edi. 1794. c. 99.

Both the life and limbs of a man are of such high value, in the estimation of the law of England, that it pardons even homicide if committed se defendendo, or in order to preserve them.9 For whatever is done by a man, to save either life or member, is looked upon as done upon the highest necessity and compulsion. Therefore, if a man through fear of death, or mayhem, is prevailed upon to execute a deed, or do any other legal act;

these, though accompanied with all other the requisite solemnities, may be afterwards avoided, if forced upon him by a well-grounded apprehension of losing his life, or even his limbs, in case of his non-compliance.t And the same is also a sufficient excuse for the commission of many misdemesnors, as will appear in the fourth book. The constraint a man is under in these circumstances is called in law duress, from the Latin durities, of which there are two sorts; duress of imprisonment, where a man actually loses his liberty, of which we shall presently speak; and duress per minas, where the hardship is only threatened and impending, which is that we are now discoursing of. Duress per minas is either for fear or loss of life, or else for fear of mayhem, or loss of limb. And this fear must be upon sufficient reason; "non" as Bracton express it, "suspicio cujuslibet vani et meticulosi hominis, sed talis qui possit cadere in virum constantem; talis enim debet esse metus, qui in se contineat vitae periculum, aut carporis cruciatum."u A fear of battery, or being beaten, though never so well grounded, is no duress; neither is the fear of having one's house burned, or one's goods taken away and destroyed; because in these cases, should the threat be performed, a man may have satisfaction by recovering equivalent damages:w but no suitable atonement can be made for the loss of life or limb. And the indulgence shewn to a man under this, the principal, sort of duress, the fear of losing his life or limbs, agrees also with that maxim of the civil law; ignoscitur ei qui sanguinem suum qualiter qualiter redemptum voluit.x

t 2 Inst. 483. u l. 2. c. 5.

w 2 Inst. 483. x Ef. 48. 21. 1.

9. Herewith the laws of Virginia agree. L. V. 1789. c. 10. Edi. 1794. c. 43.

The law not only regards life and member, and protects every man in the enjoyment of them, but also furnishes him with every thing necessary for their support. For there is no man so indigent or wretched, but he may demand a supply sufficient for all the necessities of life from the more opulent part of the community, by means of the several statutes enacted for the relief of the poor,10 of which in their proper places. A humane provision; yet, though dictated by the principles of society, discountenanced by the Roman laws. For the edicts of the emperor Constantine commanding the public to maintain the children of those who were unable to provide for them, in order to prevent the murder and exposure of infants, an institution founded on the same principle as our foundling hospitals, though comprized in the Theodosian code,y were rejected in Justinian's collection.

These rights, of life and member, can only be determined by the death of the person; which was formerly accounted to be either a civil or natural death. The civil death commenced, if any man was banished or abjured the realmz by the process of the common law, or entered into religion; that is, went into a monastery, and became there a monk professed: in which cases he was absolutely dead in law, and his next heir should have his estate(10). For, such banished man was entirely cut off from society; and such a monk, upon his profession, renounced solemnly all secular concerns: and besides, as the popish clergy claimed an exemption from the duties of civil life and the commands of the temporal magistrate, the genius of the English

y l. 11. c. 27. z Co. Litt. 133.

10. Herewith the laws of Virginia also agree. It must however be acknowledged, that the laws respecting the poor are capable of great improvement. See V. L. 1794, c. 102.

(10.) Any person absenting himself from the commonwealth of Virginia beyond sea, or elsewhere, for seven years, successively, shall be presumed to be dead, in any case wherein his death shall come in question, unless proof be made that he was alive within that time. L. V. 1786, c. 67. Edi. 1794, c. 26.

laws would not suffer those persons to enjoy the benefits of society, who secluded themselves from it, and refused to submit to its regulations.a A monk was therefore accounted civiliter mortuus, and when he entered into religion might, like other dying men, make his testament and executors; or, if he made none, the ordinary might grant administration to his next of kin, as if he were actually dead intestate. And such executors and administrators had the same power, and might bring the same actions for debts due to the religious, and were liable to the same actions for those due from him, as if he were naturally deceased.b Nay, so far has this principle been carried, that when one was bound in a bond to an abbot and his successors, and afterwards made his executors and professed himself a monk of the same abbey, and in process of time was himself made abbot thereof;

here the law gave him, in the capacity of abbot, an action of debt against his own executors to recover the money due.c In short, a monk or religious, were so effectually dead in law, that a lease made even to a third person, during the life (generally) of one who afterwards became a monk, determined by such his entry into religion: for which reason leases, and other conveyances for life, were usually made to have and to hold for the term of one's natural life.d But, even in the times of popery, the law of England took no cognizance of profession in any foreign country, because the fact could not be tried in our courts;e and therefore, since the reformation, this disability is held to be abolished:f as is also the disability of banishment, consequent upon abjuration, by statute 21 Jac. I. c. 28.

This natural life, being, as was before observed, the immediate donation of the Great Creator, cannot legally be disposed of or destroyed by any individual, neither by the person himself, nor by any other of his fellow-creatures, merely upon their own authority. Yet nevertheless it may, by the divine permis-

a This was also a rule in the feodal law, l. 2. t. 21. dessit esse miles seculi, qui factus est miles Christi; nec beneficium pertinet ad eum qui non debet gerere

officium.

b Litt. §. 200. c Co. Litt. 133.

d 2 Rep. 48. Co. Litt. 132. e Co. Litt. 132. f 1 Salk, 162.

sion, be frequently forfeited for the breach of those laws of society, which are enforced by the sanction of capital punishments;

of the nature, restrictions, expedience, and legality of which, we may hereafter more conveniently inquire in the concluding book of these commentaries. At present, I shall only observe, that whenever the constitution of a state vests in any man, or body of men, a power of destroying at pleasure, without the direction of laws, the lives or members of the subject, such constitution is in the highest degree tyrannical: and that whenever any laws direct such destruction for light and trivial causes, such laws are likewise tyrannical, though in an inferior degree: because here the subject is aware of the danger he is exposed to, and may by prudent caution provide against it. The statute law of England does therefore very seldom, and the common law does never inflict any punishment extending to life or limb, unless upon the highest necessity: and the constitution is an utter stranger to any arbitrary power of killing or maiming the subject without the express warrant of law. "Nullus liber homo" says the great charters, "aliquo modo destruatur, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum aut per legem terrae."11 Which words, aliquo modo destruatur," according to sir Edward Coke,h include a prohibition not only of killing, and maiming, but also of torturing (to which our laws are strangers) and of every oppression by colour of an illegal authority. And it is enacted by the statute 5 Edw. III. c. 9, that no man shall be judged of life or limb, contrary to the great charter and the law of the land: and again, by statute 28 Edw. III. c. 3, that no man shall be put to death, without being brought to answer by due process of law.12

g c. 29. h 2 Inst. 48.

11. Herewith both the federal and state laws agree. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 7. L. V. 1785, c. 81; Edi. 1794, c. 15, is a pretty exact translation of this part of the British Magna Charta.

12. No man shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 7. V. Bill of Rights, Art. 9. V. L. 1785, c. 81. Edi. 1794, c. 15.

3. Besides those limbs and members that may be necessary to a man, in order to defend himself or annoy his enemy, the rest of his person or body is also entitled, by the same natural right, to security from the corporal insults of menaces, assaults, beating, and wounding; though such insults amount not to destruction of life or member.13

4. The preservation of a man's health from such practices as may prejudice or annoy it;14 and,

5. The security of his reputation or good name from the arts of detraction and slander, are rights to which every man is entitled, by reason and natural justice; since without these it is impossible to have the perfect enjoyment of any other advantage or right. But these three last articles (being of much less importance than those which have gone before, and those which are yet to come) it will suffice to have barely mentioned among the rights of persons: referring the more minute discussion of their several branches, to those parts of our commentaries which treat of the infringement of these rights, under the head of personal wrongs.15

II. Next to personal security, the law of England regards, asserts, and preserves the personal liberty of individuals. This personal liberty consists in the power of loco-motion, of changing situation, or moving one's person to whatsoever place one's own inclination may direct; without imprisonment or restraint, unless by due course of law. Concerning which we may make the same observations as upon the preceding article; that it is a right strictly natural; that the laws of England have never

13. This is by the common law. The persons of women, who are liable to some atrocious injuries which may fall under this description, are protected by some special laws for that purpose to be found in our statutory code. V. L. Edi. 1794, c. 104, 130. Sess. Acts of 1796, c. 2.

14. V. L. Edi. 1794, c. 23, 103, 105, 106, afford instances hereof.

15. See Appendix, Note G.

abridged it without sufficient cause; and, that in this kingdom it cannot ever be abridged at the mere discretion of the magistrate, without the explicit permission of the laws.(15) Here again the language of the great charteri is, that no freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, but by the lawful judgment of his equals, or by the law of the land.16 And many subsequent old statutesj expressly direct, that no man shall be taken or imprisoned by suggestion or petition to the king or his council, unless it be by legal indictment, or the process of the common law. By the petition of right, 3 Car. I, it is enacted, that no freeman shall be imprisoned or detained without cause shewn, to which he may make answer according to law.17 By 16 Car. I. c. 10. if any person be restrained of his liberty by order or decree of any illegal court, or by command of the king's majesty in person, or by warrant of the council board, or of any of the privy council; he shall, upon demand of his councel, have a writ of habeas corpus, to bring his body before the court of king's bench or common pleas; who shall determine whether the cause of his commitment be just, and thereupon do as to justice shall appertain.18

i c. 29. j 5 Edw. III. c. 9. 25 Edw. III. st. 5. c. 4. 28 Edw. III. c. 3.

(15.) The privilege of the writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, (viz. by congress) unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. C. U. 8. Art. I. Sec. 9. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be seized. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 6. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. Ib. Art. 7. Excessive bail shall not be required, Ib. Art. 10. And herewith also agrees the bill of rights, Art. 8, 9, 10, and V. L. 1785, c. 81. Edi. 1794, c. 15.

16. V. L. 1785, c. 81. Edi. 1794, c. 15. accordant.

17. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 6. V. Bill of Rights, Art. 10. accordant.

18. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 9. L. U. S. 1 Cong. 1 Sess. c. 20. Sec. 14. L. V. 1784, c. 35. Edi. 1794, c. 118. accordant.

And by 31 Car. II. c. 2. commonly called the habeas corpus act, the methods of obtaining this writ are so plainly pointed out and enforced, that, so long as this statute remains unimpeached, no subject of England can be long detained in prison, except in those cases in which the law requires and justifies such detainer.19 And, lest this act should be evaded by demanding unreasonable bail, or sureties for the prisoner's appearance, it is declared by 1 W. & M. st. 2. c. 2, that excessive ball ought not to be required.20

Of great importance to the public is the preservation of this personal liberty: for if once it were left in the power of any, the highest, magistrate to imprison arbitrarily whomever he or his officers thought proper, (as in France it is daily practised by the crown)k there would soon be an end of all other rights and immunities. Some have thought, that unjust attacks, even upon life, or property, at the arbitrary will of the magistrate, are less dangerous to the commonwealth, than such as are made upon the personal liberty of the subject. To bereave a man of life, or by violence to confiscate his estate, without accusation or trial, would be so gross and notorious an act of despotism, as must at once convey the alarm of tyranny throughout the whole kingdom: but confinement of the person, by secretly hurrying him to gaol, where his sufferings are unknown or forgotten, is a less public, a less striking, and therefore a more dangerous engine of arbitrary government. And yet sometimes, when the state is in real danger, even this may be a necessary measure. But the happiness of our constitution is, that it is not left to the executive power to determine when the danger of the state is so great, as to render this measure expedient: for it is the parliament

k I have been assured upon good authority, that, during the mild administration of cardinal Fleury, above 54,000 lettres de cachet were issued, upon the single ground of the famous bulle unigenitus.

19. V. L. 1794, c. 118. to the same purpose.

20. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 10. Bill of Rights, Art. 9. 1785, c. 80. Edi. 1794, c. 14. accordant.

only, or legislative power, that, whenever it sees proper, can authorise the crown, by suspending the habeas corpus act for a short and limited time,21 to imprison suspected persons without giving any reason for so doing; as the senate of Rome was wont to have recourse to a dictator, a magistrate of absolute authority, when they judged the republic in any imminent danger. The decree of the senate, which usually preceded the nomination of this magistrate, "dent operam consules, ne quid respublica detrimenti capiat,["] was called the senatus consultum ultimae necessitatis. In like manner, this experiment ought only to be tried in cases of extreme emergency; and in these the nation parts with it's liberty for a while, in order to preserve it for ever.

The confinement of the person, in any wise, is an imprisonment. So that the keeping a man against his will in a private house, putting him in the stocks, arresting or forcibly detaining him in the street, is an imprisonment.l And the law so much discourages unlawful confinement, that if a man is under duress of imprisonment, which we before explained to mean a compulsion by an illegal restraint of liberty, until he seals a bond or the like; he may allege this duress, and avoid the extorted bond. But if a man be lawfully imprisoned, and either to procure his discharge, or any other fair account, seals a bond or a deed, this is not by duress of imprisonment, and he is not at liberty to avoid it.m To make imprisonment lawful, it must either be by process from the courts of judicature, or by warrant from some legal officer having authority to commit to prison; which warrant must be in writing, under the hand and seal of the magistrate, and express the causes of the commitment, in order to be examined into (if necessary) upon a habeas corpus.22 If there

l 3 Inst. 589. m 2 Inst. 482.

21. The privilege of the writ of Habeas Corpus, can only be suspended by the authority of congress, in case of actual rebellion or invasion. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 9. And the legislature, only, have power to suspend it in the state governments.

22. General warrants, commanding the seizure of any persons not named, or whose offence is not particularly described, and sup-

be no cause expressed, the gaoler is not bound to detain the prisoner.n For the law judges in this respect, saith sir Edward Coke, like Festus the Roman governor; that it is unreasonable to send a prisoner, and not to signify withal the crimes alleged against him.

A natural and regular consequence of this personal liberty, is, that every Englishman may claim a right to abide in his own country so long as he pleases; and not to be driven from it unless by the sentence of the law. The king, indeed, by his royal prerogative, may issue out his writ ne exeat regnum, and prohibit any of his subjects from going into foreign parts without licence.o 23 This may be necessary for the public service and safeguard of the commonwealth. But no power on earth, except the authority of parliament, can send any subject of England out of the land against his will; no, not even a criminal. For exile, and transportation, are punishments at present unknown to the common law; and, whenever the latter is now inflicted, it is either by the choice of the criminal himself to escape a capital punishment, or else by the express direction of some modern act of parliament. To this purpose the great charterp declares,

n 2 Inst. 52, 53. o F. N. B. 85. p c. 29.

ported by evidence, are grievous and oppressive, and ought not to be granted. Bill of rights, Art. 10. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 6.

23. The constitution of Virginia, Art. 9, expressly declares, "that the government shall not, under any pretext, exercise any power, or prerogative by virtue of any law, statute, or custom of England." And the laws of Virginia expressly admit the right of expatriation. It seems also to result from the nature of our government, that the federal executive possesses no such power as that here spoken of. But where it is suggested that a defendant in a civil suit, in which bail is not ordinarily required, is about to depart the state, the courts of equity, for good cause shewn, will award a writ of ne exeat to compel the defendant to give security to satisfy the judgment, or, perform the decree of the court. V. L. Edi. 1794, c. 64, 110. See also, 3 p. Wms. 312. 3 Bro. 370, and 1. Ves. jun. 96.

that no freeman shall be banished, unless by the judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land.24 And by the habeas corpus act, 31 Car. II. c. 2. (that second magna carta, and stable bulwark of our liberties) it is enacted, that no subject of this realm, who is an inhabitant of England, Wales, or Berwick, shall be sent prisoner into Scotland, Ireland, Jersey, Guernsey, or places beyond the seas; (where they cannot have the full benefit and protection of the common law) but that all such imprisonments shall be illegal; that the person, who shall dare to commit another contrary to this law, shall be disabled from bearing any office, shall incur the penalty of a praemunire, and be incapable of receiving the king's pardon: and the party suffering shall also have his private action against the person committing, and all his aiders, advisers and abbettors, and shall recover treble costs; besides his damages, which no jury shall assess at less than five hundred pounds.

24. V. L. 1785, c. 81. Edi. 1794, c. 15. accordant. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. Amendments of C. U. S. Art. 7.

Notwithstanding this express declaration of the C. U. S. an act was passed, 5 Cong. c. 75, authorising the president to order all such aliens as he should judge dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States, or have reasonable grounds to suspect of any treasonable, or secret machinations against the government thereof, to depart out of the territory of the United States within a limited time; and in case of disobedience, every such alien so ordered, was liable, on conviction, to be imprisoned for any term not exceeding three years. And any alien so ordered to depart, and remaining in the United States without a licence for that purpose, obtained from the president, might be arrested, and sent out of the United States by his order: and in case of his voluntary return thereto, might be imprisoned so long as in the opinion of the president the public safety might require. This unpopular act was limited to two years, when it was permitted to expire. The states of Kentucky and Virginia protested against it as unconstitutional: a construction, which it seems impossible to invalidate, unless we could conceive that aliens are not persons, that the suspicions of a president of the United States are a probable cause supported by oath, or affirmation; that the opinion or judgment of a president is a trial by jury and a conviction, (in case of treasonable acts) upon the tes-

The law in this respect is so benignly and liberally construed for the benefit of the subject, that, though within the realm the king may command the attendance and service of all his liegemen, yet he cannot send any man out of the realm, even upon the public service; excepting sailors and soldiers, the nature of whose employment necessarily implies an exception: he cannot even constitute a man lord deputy, or lieutenant of Ireland against his will, nor make him a foreign ambassador.q For this might in reality be no more than an honourable exile.

III. The third absolute right, inherent in every Englishman, is that of property: which consists in the free use, enjoyment, and disposal of all his acquisitions, without any control or diminution, save only by the laws of the land.25 The original of private property is probably founded in nature, as will be be more fully explained in the second book of the ensuing commentaries: but certainly the modifications under which we at present find it, the method of conserving it in the present owner, and of translating it from man to man, are entirely derived from society: and are some of those civil advantages, in exchange for which, every individual has resigned a part of his natural liberty. The laws of England are therefore, in point of honour and justice, extremely watchful in ascertaining and protecting this right. Upon this principle the great charterr has declared that no freeman shall be disseised, or divested, of his freehold, or of his liberties, or free customs, but by the judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land.26 And by a variety of ancient

q 2 Inst. 46.

r c. 29.

timony of two witnesses; and that neither imprisonment, nor banishment, is any deprivation of personal liberty. See note (28) p. 260.

25. The means of acquiring and possessing property is one of the inherent rights of man, as enumerated in our bill of rights, Art. 1. See also Amendts. to C. U. S. Art. 6, 7.

26. Amendments to the C. U. S. Art. 7. L. V. 1785, c. 81. Edi. 1794, c. 15. accordant.

statutess It is enacted, that no man's lands or goods shall be seised into the king's hands, against the great charter, and the law of the land;27 and that no man shall be disinherited, nor put out of his franchises or freehold, unless he be duly brought to answer, and be forejudged by course of law; but if any thing be done to the contrary, it shall be redressed, and holden for none.

So great, moreover, is the regard of the law for private property, that it will not authorise the least violation of it; no, not even for the general good of the whole community. If a new road, for instance, were to be made through the grounds of a private person, it might perhaps be extensively beneficial to the public; but the law permits no man, or set of men, to do this without consent of the owner of the land. In vain may it be urged, that the good of the individual ought to yield to that of the community; for it would be dangerous to allow any private man, or even any public tribunal, to be the judge of this common good, and to decide whether it be expedient or no. Besides, the public good is in nothing more essentially interested, than in the protection of every individual's private rights, as modelled by the municipal law. In this and similar cases, the legislature alone can, and indeed frequently does, interpose, and compel the individual to acquiesce. But how does it interpose and compel? Not by absolutely stripping the subject of his properly in an arbitrary manner; but by giving him a full indemnification and equivalent for the injury thereby sustained.28 The public is now considered as an individual, treating with an individual for an

s 5 Edw. III. c. 9. 25 Edw. III. st. 5. c. 4. 28 Edw. III. c. 3.

27. Private property shall not be taken for the public use, without just compensation. Amendments to the C. U. S. Art. 7. V. L. 1794, c. 121.

28. V. L. 1785, c. 75. Edi. 1794, c. 19. accordant, except that the county courts are generally authorised to judge of the propriety of opening the road. The compensation to be allowed is assessed by a jury, assembled by virtue of a writ of ad quod damnum.

exchange. All that the legislature does, is to oblige the owner to alienate his possessions for a reasonable price; and even this is an exertion of power, which the legislature indulges with caution, and which nothing but the legislature can perform.

Nor is this the only instance in which the law of the land has postponed even public necessity to the sacred and inviolable rights of private property. For no subject of England can be constrained to pay any aids or taxes, even for the defence of the realm or the support of government, but such as are imposed by his own consent, or that of his representatives in parliament.29 By the statute, 25 Edw. I. c. 5. and 6, it is provided, that the king shall not take any aids or tasks, but by the common assent of the realm. And what that common assent is, is more fully explained by 34 Edw. I. st. 4. c. 1, whicht enacts, that no talliage or aid shall be taken without the assent of the archbishops, bishops, earls, barons, knights, burgesses, and other freemen of the land:

and again, by 14 Edw. III. st. 2. c. 1, the prelates, earls, barons, and commons, citizens, burgesses, and merchants shall not be charged to make any aid, if it be not by the common assent of the great men and commons in parliament. And as this fundamental law had been shamefully evaded under many succeeding princes, by compulsive loans, and benevolences extorted without a real and voluntary consent, it was made an article in the petition of right, 3 Car I, that no man shall be compelled to yield any

t See the introduction to the great charter, (edit, Oxon.) sub anno 1297; wherein it is shewn that this statute de talliagio non concedendo, supposed to have been made in 34 Edw, I, is in reality nothing more than a sort of translation into Latin of the confirmatio cartarum, 25 Edw. I, which was originally published in the Norman language.

29. Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for the common defence, and general welfare of the United States: but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall he uniform throughout the United States:

and no capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid but in proportion to the census. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 89. And in the state governments, also, no man can be taxed, or deprived of his property for public uses, without his own consent, or that of his representatives. Bill of Rights, Art, 6,

gift, loan, or benevolence, tax, or such like charge, without common consent by act of parliament. And, lastly, by the statute 1 W. and M. st. 2. c. 2, it is declared, that levying money for or to the use of the crown, by pretence of prerogative, without grant of parliament; or for longer time, or in other manner, than the same is or shall be granted: is illegal.

In the three preceding articles we have taken a short view of the principal absolute rights which appertain to every Englishman. But in vain would these rights be declared, ascertained, and protected by the dead letter of the laws, if the constitution had provided no other method to secure their actual enjoyment. It has, therefore, established certain other auxiliary subordinate rights of the subject, which serve principally as outworks or barriers, to protect and maintain inviolate the three great and primary rights, of personal security, personal liberty, and private property. These are,

1. The constitution, powers, and privileges of parliament, of which I shall treat at large in the ensuing chapter.30

2. The limitation of the king's prerogative, by bounds, so certain and notorious, that it is impossible he should either mistake or legally exceed them without the consent of the people .... Of this also, I shall treat in it's proper place. The former of these, keeps the legislative power in due health and vigour, so as to make it improbable that laws should be enacted destructive of general liberty: the latter is a guard upon the executive power, by restraining it from acting either beyond or in contradiction to the laws, that are framed and established by the other.31

30. Having already treated somewhat at large of the constitution, powers and privileges both of the federal and the state legislature, in the Appendix to the first part of this volume, the Editor will, in general, confine himself to short references, only, in this and the ensuing chapters. See C. U. S. Art. 1. C. V. Art. 3.

31. The powers and duties of the federal executive, and of the governor of the commonwealth, with the limitations thereof respectively. See C. U. S. Art. 2. C. V. Art. 9. L. V. c. 62. Edi. 1794.

3. A third subordinate right of every Englishman is that of applying to the courts of justice for redress of injuries.32 Since the law is in England the supreme arbiter of every man's life, liberty, and property, courts of justice must at all times be open to the subject, and the law be duly administered therein. The emphatical words of magna carta,u spoken in the person of the king, who in judgment of law (says Sir Edward Cokew) is ever present and repeating them in all his courts, are these; nulli vendemus, nulli negabimus, aut differemus rectum vel justitiam:

"and therefore, every subject,"33 continues the same learned author, "for injury done to him in bonis, in terns, vel persona, by any other subject, be he ecclesiastical or temporal, without any exception, may take his remedy by the course of the law, and have justice and right for the injury done to him, freely without sale, fully without any denial, and speedily without delay." It were endless to enumerate all the affirmative acts of parliament, wherein justice is directed to be done according to the law of the land: and what that law is, every subject knows, or may know, if he pleases; for it depends not upon the arbitrary will of any judge, but is permanent, fixed, and unchangeable, unless by authority of parliament. I shall, however, just mention a few negative statutes, whereby abuses, perversions, or delays of justice, especially by the prerogative, are restrained .... It is ordained by magna carta,x that no freeman shall be outlawed, that is, put out of the protection and benefit of the laws, but according to the law of the land.34 By 2 Edw. III. c. 8. and 11 Ric. II. c. 10, it is enacted, that no commands or letters

u c. 29. w 2. Inst. 55. x c. 29.

32. See C. U. S. Art. 3. C. V. Art. 3. 14.

33. Justice or right shall not be sold, denied, or deferred to any man. L. V. 1785, c. 81. Edi. 1794, c. 15.

34. No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or be disseized of his freehold or liberties, or free customs, or be outlawed or exiled, or any otherwise destroyed, nor shall the commonwealth pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. V. L. 1785, c. 81. Edi. 1794, c. 15.

shall be sent under the great seal, or the little seal, the signet, or privy seal, in disturbance of the law; or to disturb or delay common right: and, though such commandments should come, the judges shall not cease to do right; which is also made apart of their oath by statute 18 Edw. III. st. 4.35 And by 1 W. and M. st. 2. c. 2, it is declared, that the pretended power of suspending, or dispensing with laws, or the execution of laws, by regal authority, without consent of parliament, is illegal.36

Not only the substantial part, or judicial decisions, of the law but also the formal part, or method of proceeding, cannot be altered but by parliament: for, if once those out works were demolished, there would be an inlet to all manner of innovation in the body of the law itself. The king, it is true, may erect new courts of justice;37 but then they must proceed according to the old established forms of the common law. For which reason it is declared in the statute 16 Car. I. c. 10, upon the dissolution of the court of star-chamber, that neither his majesty, nor his privy council, have any jurisdiction, power, or authority by English bill, petition, articles, libel, (which were the course of proceeding in the star-chamber, borrowed from the civil law) or by any other arbitrary way whatsoever, to examine, or draw into question, determine, or dispose of the lands or goods of any subjects of this kingdom; but that the same ought to be

35. It is also made a part of the oath of the judges of all the superior courts in Virginia, but not of the county courts. Edi. 1794, c. 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, neither is it a part of the oath of the federal judges. L. U. S. 1 Cong. 1 Sess. c. 20.

36. All power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws, by any authority without the consent of the representatives of the people, is injurious to their rights, and ought not to be exercised. Bill of rights, Art. 7.

37. It does not belong to the executive authority either in the federal, or state government, to erect courts of judicature. The constitutions of both provide for the establishment of superior courts, and the congress, or state legislature only, has authority to establish inferior tribunals. C. U. S. Art. 3. C. V. Art. 14.

tried and determined in the ordinary courts of justice, and by course of law.

4. If there should happen any uncommon injury, or infringement of the rights before-mentioned, which the ordinary course of law is too defective to reach, there still remains a fourth subordinate right, appertaining to every individual, namely, the right of petitioning the king, or either house of parliament, for the redress of grievances.38 In Russia we are toldy that the czar Peter, established a law, that no subject might petition the throne, till he had first petitioned two different ministers of state. In case he obtained justice from neither, he might then present a third petition to the prince; but upon pain of death, it found to be in the wrong. The consequence of which was, that no one dared to offer such third petition; and grievances seldom falling under the notice of the sovereign, he had little opportunity to redress them. The restrictions, for some there are, which are laid upon petitioning in England, are of a nature extremely different; and while they promote the spirit of peace, they are no check upon that of liberty. Care only must be taken, lest, under the pretence of petitioning, the subject be guilty of any riot or tumult; as happened in the opening of the memorable parliament in 1640: and, to prevent this, it is provided by the statute 13 Car. II. st. 1. c. 5, that no petition to the king, or either house of parliament, for any alteration in church or state, shall be signed by above twenty persons, unless the matter thereof be approved by three justices of the peace, or the major part of the grand

y Montesq. Sp L. xii. 26.

38. The right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances shall not be prohibited. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 3. The convention of Virginia, at the time of their acceptance and ratification of the constitution of the United States, declared; That the people have a right peaceably to assemble together to consult for the common good, or to instruct their representatives; and that every freeman hath a right to petition or apply to the legislature for redress of grievances. See the bill of rights proposed by that convention, Art. 15.

jury, in the country39; and in London by the lord mayor, aldermen, and common council: nor shall any petition be presented by more than ten persons at a time. But, under these regulations, it is declared by the statute 1 W. & M. st. 2. c. 2, that the subject hath a right to petition; and that all commitments and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal.

5. The fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject, that I shall at present mention, is that of having arms for their defence40 suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law.41 Which is also declared by the same statute 1 W. & M. st. 2. c. 2, and it is indeed, a public allowance under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression.

In these several articles consist the rights, or, as they are frequently termed, the liberties of Englishmen: liberties, more generally talked of, than thoroughly understood; and yet highly necessary to be perfectly known and considered by every man of rank or property, lest his ignorance of the points whereon they are founded should hurry him into faction and licentiousness on the one hand, or a pusillanimous indifference and criminal submission on the other. And we have seen that these rights con-

39. From hence, probably originated the practice of grand-juries presenting state-grievances. The right of petitioning is not subject to any limitation or restriction in the United States.

40. the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 4, and this without any qualification as to their condition or degree, as is the case in the British government.

41. Whoever examines the forest, and game laws in the British code, will readily perceive that the right of keeping arms is effectually taken away from the people of England. The commentator himself informs us, Vol. II, p. 412, "that the prevention of popular insurrections and resistence to government by disarming the bulk of the people, is a reason oftener meant than avowed by the makers of the forest and game laws."

sist, primarily, in the free enjoyment of personal security, of personal liberty, and of private property. So long as these remain inviolate, the subject is perfectly free; for every species of compulsive tyranny and oppression must act in opposition to one or other of these rights, having no other object upon which it can possibly be employed. To preserve these from violation, it is necessary, that the constitution of parliament be supported in its full vigour; and limits, certainly known, be set to the royal prerogative. And, lastly, to vindicate these rights, when actually violated or attacked, the subjects of England are entitled, in the first place, to the regular administration and free course of justice in the courts of law; next, to the right of petitioning the king and parliament for redress of grievances; and, lastly, to the right of having and using arms for self-preservation and defence. And all these rights and liberties it is our birth-right to enjoy entire; unless where the laws of our country have laid them under necessary restraints. Restraints in themselves so gentle and moderate, as will appear upon farther inquiry, that no man of sense or probity would wish to see them slackened. For all of us have it in our choice to do every thing that a good man would desire to do; and are restrained from nothing, but what would be pernicious either to ourselves or our fellow-citizens .... So that this review of our situation may fully justify the observation of a learned French author, who indeed generally both thought and wrote in the spirit of genuine freedom;z and who hath not scrupled to profess, even in the very bosom of his native country, that the English is the only nation in the world, where political or civil liberty is the direct end of it's constitution.42 Re-

z Montesq. Sp. L. xi. 5.

42. Professor Christian, in one of his notes upon this chapter, page 126, hints at a distinction between civil and political liberty. Something of the same kind will be found in the tract concerning slavery, Appendix note H. Perhaps the idea is not there carried far enough; I shall therefore subjoin a few observations in this place.

Perhaps the difficulty which occurs in drawing the line of distinction between civil and political liberty, arises from the present use of that term, as synonimous with the word right: it may be not amiss, therefore, to give a short definition of each.

Liberty

commending, therefore, to the student in our laws a farther and more accurate search into this extensive and important title, I shall close my remarks upon it with the expiring wish of the famous father Paul to his country, "ESTO PERPETUA!"43

Liberty, then, is defined by Mr. Locke, to be, the power in any agent to do, or to forbear, any particular action, according to the determination or thought of the mind, whereby either of them is preferred to the other.*

Right, on the other hand, is defined by Doctor Johnson, to be, that which justly belongs to one; or, a just claim.

In discussing the interests, immunities, privileges, prerogatives, and powers, which appertain to men and states, as moral agents, the term right seems to be more definite and appropriate than that of liberty; I shall therefore adopt it.

Rights, then, I apprehend, admit of a fourfold division: 1st, natural rights; 2dly, social rights; 3dly, civil rights; 4thly, political rights. 1. Natural rights, are such as appertain to every man, as a moral agent, independent of any social institutions, or laws, whatsoever: to which all men, without distinction, so long as they remain In the state of nature, are absolutely entitled. The whole of which are comprehended under the right of self-preservation, and

of doing whatsoever may be necessary to that end.

It is this right of self-preservation which gives to any person in the state of nature the right to punish any other for any evil Ire has done; and to be himself both the judge and executioner of the law of nature.

But this natural right doth not amount, even in the state of nature, to a state of license, or uncontrolled liberty; for the state of nature hath the law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one;

and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind that will consult it, that being all equal, and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions. And, therefore, when his own preservation comes not in competition, he ought, as much as he can, to preserve the rest of mankind, and may not, unless it be to do justice on an offender, take away, or impair the life, or what tends to the preservation of the liberty, health, limbs, or goods of another.†

When * Locke on the Human Understanding, B. 2. c. 21. Sec. 8.

† Locke on Civil Government, c. 2.

43. See Appendix, Note H.

When a man quits the state of nature, and enters into a state of society, he resigns into the hands of society the right of punishing an offender, for an injury already done him, the society by the terms of the social compact, having engaged to punish every such offender for him. But he retains the right of repelling force by force; because that may be absolutely necessary for self-preservation, and the intervention of the society in his behalf, may be too late to prevent an injury. Upon the same principle, he may be supposed to retain every other natural right, which the society cannot aid him in preserving or enforcing.

2. Social rights are such as appertain to every individual in a state of society, without regard to the form or nature of the government in which he resides. Social rights comprehend whatever natural rights a man hath not abandoned by entering into society; they likewise include all those privileges which are supposed to be tacitly stipulated for, by the very act of association; such as the right of protection from injury, which the whole society has engaged to afford him; or of redress for the same, by suit or action. The right of holding lands by a mere symbolical representation, as a deed, instead of actual possession, the only title which the law of nature gives; the right of transmitting property to his posterity, or. to his executors, or legatees; are all of them, social rights, being the mere creatures of the artificial institutions of society.

Social rights depend upon the laws, customs, and usages of different nations and countries; but they have no relation to the nature, form, or administration of the government; the rights which appertain to these subjects being more properly civil, or political, as will be shewn hereafter. Therefore, in all civilized nations, all free persons, whether citizens or aliens; males or females; infants or adults; white or black, of sound mind, or ideots and lunatics, have their respective social rights, according to the laws, customs, and usages of the country. Slaves, only, where slavery is tolerated by the laws, are excluded from social rights. Society deprives them of personal liberty, and abolishes their right to property; and, in some countries, even annihilates all their other natural rights: the life of the slave, in divers parts of the world, being held by a tenure, altogether as precarious as that of the ox he ploughs with.

3. Civil rights, taken in a strict and confined sense, as contradistinguished from natural and social rights, are such as appertain to a man as a citizen or subject, of this, or that, particular state or country; in his private and individual capacity as a free agent, and member of the body politic or state, in respect to the state or body politic; and contradistinguished from such as might be due to him as a magistrate, legislator, judge, or other public agent, character,

or functionary. The right of electing, and being elected to, any public office or trust, may be considered as among the most important of these rights.

These civil rights may be inherited, or acquired, in the United States: they are acquired by a foreigner who is naturalized; they are inherited by all whose parents, at the time of their birth, were citizens. They may be enlarged, in some states, by the purchase of lands, if the purchaser had no lands before; they may be narrowed by the sale of lands, if the seller has no more left.

Aliens, women, children under the age of discretion, ideots, and lunatics, during their state of insanity, and negroes and mulattoes, though natives of the state, and born free, have no civil rights in Virginia, taken in this strict and limited sense.

4. Political rights, as contradistinguished from the three former, are such as appertain to a man, or body of men, as magistrates, legislators, judges, or other public agents, characters, or functionaries. Thus the prerogatives of a king of Great Britain are his political rights; and the powers vested in the president of the United States; in the senate; in the whole body of the congress; in the federal courts; and in the executive, legislative, and judiciary departments, and officers of the several states, constitute their political rights, respectively.

Political rights, in monarchies and aristocracies, are frequently personal and hereditary; in democracies properly constituted, they are merely official, temporary, and incapable of transmission by inheritance. In England, a man may be a chief magistrate, a legislator, or a judge, by inheritance: in the American States it is a fundamental principle, that no man can be a magistrate, a legislator, or a judge by hereditary right. In America, women have no political rights; in England, a woman may hold the reins of government.

Civil rights form the only balance or counterpoise in a state, against political rights: where the constitution of a state respects civil rights, more than such as are political, the people, whilst the constitution remains in fall force, are free; but the government may possibly be too feeble to preserve the constitution, or to secure to individuals the enjoyment of their social rights: but where the constitution respects political rights, more than civil rights, the state may be free, and the constitution preserved in its fall tone and vigour: but the people (unless they have reserved to themselves the power to change the constitution, which is not supposed in this case,) are slaves.

As civil rights form the only check in a state upon such as are political, so also do they constitute the only safeguard and protection for social rights. In Turkey, where there are no civil rights, social rights are at the mercy of the grand seignior and his bashaws.

The right of personal liberty is a natural right; the benefit of habeas corpus is a social right; the right of individuals to choose representatives to congress is a civil right; the right of the several state legislatures to appoint senators to congress is a political right. The first of these rights is derived from our Creator, and is not abandoned by entering into society; the second is a creature of social law, invented for the security and protection of the former; the third results from the constitution of the United States regarded as a civil compact; the fourth results from the same instrument, regarded as a federal compact. The right of congress to make laws, binding not only upon the several states, but, in some cases, upon every individual citizen, is another political right, the creature of the same instrument.

Social rights are not unfrequently unequal; in England no inferior tradesman or mechanic, whatever his property may be; nor even a farmer, upon the land which he rents, and occupies, can kill a hare or a partridge, without being liable to a penalty for so doing;

nor can any other person unless he hath a freehold estate, or other adequate qualification, to the amount of 100l. per annum, at least, except he be the son and heir apparent of an esquire, or person of a superior degree; in which case he may do it with impunity, (so far as relates to the public) wheresoever he meets with them. In Virginia, a negro, or mulatto, though born free, cannot be a witness in any civil suit, in which a white person may be a party, nor in any criminal prosecution whatsoever, against a white person, even though the negro, or mulatto may have been beaten or maimed by him.

Civil rights also, are frequently unequal; both in England, and in Virginia, none but the possessors of a freehold-estate in lands, of a certain value, are (in general*) qualified to vote for a member of congress, or of the state legislature; nor can any negro, or mulatto, though free, and possessed of such an estate in lands, vote for either in Virginia.

Wherever a distinction of ranks is permitted, or established by the laws, or constitution, there an inequality, both in respect to social, and civil rights, is unavoidable.

* The right of suffrage in Williamsburg, Norfolk, and Richmond, is extended to all house-keepers in those towns: the same holds in respect to the English boroughs.

Social rights are, in some respects, more extensive in England, than in Virginia, for in England domestic slavery is unknown. In other respects they are more extensive here, than in England; for any free white person may be naturalized here, in the mode prescribed by law, as a matter of right; in England it is a matter of the highest grace, and favour. Social rights have, moreover, one security more, in the United States than in England; for no man in America is subject to the operation of a bill of attainder as he may be in England.

Civil rights are far more extensive in the United States than in England: every citizen without regard to his religion, or estate, may be elected a member of either house of congress, or even president of the United States, if there be no other constitutional objection, or incapacity: in England, a member of parliament must possess a certain estate, and must profess to believe in one particular set of religious tenets; and none but the persons of one particular family are at present capable of succeeding to the office of chief magistrate. Civil rights are likewise better secured in the United States, than in England; depending generally upon the federal and state constitutions for their support, instead of the acts of the ordinary legislature, as in England.

On the other hand, political rights are far more extensive in England, than in the American states; for the British parliament can alter the established religion of the land, and even change the constitution of the kingdom. Congress can make no law respecting religion; nor, of itself, can it change an iota of the federal constitution. And the powers of the state legislatures are equally restrained.

Hitherto, we have spoken of political rights, as they regard a man or body of men, as public functionaries, or component parts of the body politic, or state, and not as they regard the state, or nation itself; in this latter view, political rights may be either perfect, or imperfect.

When any state freely exercises all the rights of self-government, without any constraint, or control, except such as the general law of nations imposes upon all civilized nations, alike, the political rights of such state are perfect; that is the state is politically free.

It is nevertheless easy to conceive that the people of such a state may groan under the most intolerable slavery, from which they cannot relieve themselves. Rome under the government of the Caesars, and modern Turkey may illustrate this position.

But when a state, from any external cause, is deprived of any of the rights of self government, the political rights of such a state are imperfect, and the state itself can no longer be said to be politically free, whatever civil rights the people of such a state may enjoy therein. Such is the state of colonies, and other dependent governments.

In this case it is no less easy to conceive that both social and civil rights may be extensive, and secure, as they relate to the administrative authority of the dependent state; but precarious, and uncertain, as they relate to the paramount state, to which the dependent state is, itself subject. Such was the state of United America before the revolution; civil rights were in fact more extensive here, than in the predominant state; but the political rights of the colonies were imperfect. The revolution was necessary to their perfection, and also to the security of the civil rights of their inhabitants; by establishing them on the basis of the constitution of a state, which should be in itself absolutely free, and independent of all external constraint, or control, whatsoever.

From the preceding investigation of the nature of different rights, we may hazard the following definitions, without pretending to answer for their accuracy.

1. Natural liberty, then, consists in the power of acting as one thinks fit, without any constraint, or control, except by the law of nature.

2. Social liberty is natural liberty so far restrained by human laws, and no farther, as is necessary and expedient for the general advantage of any community.

3. Civil liberty consists in the free and uninterrupted exercise, enjoyment, and security of a man's civil rights; including in a more general and extensive sense, his social rights, also.

4. Political liberty, when applied to a state, or nation, consists in the absolute and unconstrained power of self-government; without any other constraint, or control whatsoever, except such as the general law of nations imposes upon all states, and nations alike. When applied to the public functionaries of any state, it consists in the free and uninterrupted exercise, enjoyment and security of their respective political rights, according to the constitution of the state.

Civil liberty is most perfect where social rights are protected and secured; where civil rights are equal, extensive, and established upon the basis of the constitution; where the political rights

of the public functionaries are defined, and limited by the constitution; and where the political rights of the state, or nation, itself, are perfect, and unlimited.

Those rights, which, according to Judge Blackstone, are the absolute rights of individuals, constitute, according to this distribution, the aggregate of their social rights.

The quantum of civil liberty in a state, is more or less, according as the people, have more or less, a share in government, and of a controlling power over the persons, by whom it is administered.*

* Price on civil liberty, Sect. 2.

CHAPTER THE SECOND.

OF THE PARLIAMENT.1

WE are next to treat of the rights and duties of persons, as they are members of society, and stand in various relations to each other. These relations are either public or private: and we will first consider those that are public.

The most universal public relation, by which men are connected together, is that of government; namely, as governors and governed, or, in other words, as magistrates and people. Of magistrates some also are supreme, in whom the sovereign power of the state resides; others are subordinate, deriving all their authority from the supreme magistrate, accountable to him for their conduct, and acting in an inferior secondary sphere.(1)

In all tyrannical governments the supreme magistracy, or the right of making and enforcing the laws, is vested in one and the same man, or one and the same body of men; and whereso-

1. In the Appendix to the former part of this volume, the student will find "a summary view and comparison of the constituent parts of the parliament of Great Britain, and the congress of the United States." See Appendix, note D. In the present chapter the Editor hath generally confined himself to short notes of reference to the correlative parts of the constitution of the United States, or of the state of Virginia.

(1.) A more obvious distinction in the United States, is that of the people, and their agents; the former being at once sovereign and subject; the latter governors and servants. Of agents some are federal, or such as have the administration of the government of the United States; others there are to whom the administration of the state governments is, exclusively, committed.

ever these two powers are united together, there can be no public liberty.2 The magistrate may enact tyrannical laws, and execute them in a tyrannical manner, since he is possessed, in quality of dispenser of justice, with all the power which he, as legislator, thinks proper to give himself. But, where the legislative and executive authority are in distinct hands, the former will take care not to entrust the latter with so large a power, as may tend to the subversion of it's own independence, and therewith of the liberty of the subject. With us, therefore, in England, this supreme power is divided into two branches; the one legislative, to wit, the parliament, consisting of king, lords, and commons; the other executive, consisting of the king alone .... It will be the business of this chapter to consider the British parliament; in which the legislative power, and (of course) the supreme and absolute authority of the state, is vested in our constitution.

The original or first institution of parliaments is one of those matters which lie so far hidden in the dark ages of antiquity, that the tracing of it out is a thing equally difficult and uncertain. The word, parliament, itself, (parlement or colloquium, as some of our historians translate it) is comparatively of modern date;

derived from the French, and signifying an assembly that met and conferred together. It was first applied to general assemblies of the states under Louis VII in France, about the middle of the twelfth century.a But it is certain that, long before the introduction of the Norman language into England, all matters of importance were debated and settled in the great councils of the realm. A practice, which seems to have been universal among

a Mod. Un. Hist. xxiii. 307. The first mention of it in our statute law is in the preamble to the statute of Westm. 1. 3. Edw. I. A. D. 1272.

2. Both the bill of rights, Art, 5. and the constitution of Virginia, Art. 3. declare, That the legislative and executive powers of the state should be separate and distinct from the judiciary, and from each other, except in certain cases especially provided. The distribution of the powers of the federal government is conformable to the same principle. See C. U. S. Art. 1. §. I. Art. 2. §. 1. Art. 3. §. 1.

the northern nations, particularly the Germans;b and carried by them into all the countries of Europe, which they overran at the dissolution of the Roman empire. Relics of which constitution, under various modifications and changes, are still to be met with in the diets of Poland, Germany, and Sweden, and the assembly of the estates in France:c for what is there now called the parliament is only the supreme court of justice, consisting of the peers, certain dignified ecclesiastics and judges; which neither is in practice, nor is supposed to be in theory, a general council of the realm.

With us in England this general council hath been held immemorially, under the several names of michel-synoth or great council, michel-gemote or great meeting, and more frequently wittena-gemote or the meeting of wise men. It was also stiled in Latin, commune concilium regni, magnum concilium regis, curia magna, conventus magnatum vel procerum, assisa generalis, and sometimes communitas regni Angliae.d We have instances of it's meeting to order the affairs of the kingdom, to make new laws, and to mend the old, or, as Fletae expresses it, "novis injuriis emersis nova constituere remedia," so early as the reign of Ina king of the west Saxons, Offa king of the Mercians, and Ethelbert king of Kent, in the several realms of the heptarchy. And, after their union, the mirrorf informs us, that king Alfred ordained for a perpetual usage, that these councils should meet twice in the year, or oftener, if need be, to treat of the government of God's people; how they should keep themselves from sin, should live in quiet, and should receive right. Our succeeding Saxon and Danish monarchs held frequent councils of this sort, as appears from their respective codes of laws; the titles whereof usually speak them to be enacted, either by the king with the advice of his wittena-gemote, or wise men, as, "haec

b De minoribus rebus principes consultant, de majoribus omnes, Tac. de mor. Germ. c. 11.

c These were assembled for the last time, A. D. 1561. (See Whitelocke of parl. c. 72. or according to Robertson, A. D. 1614. (Hist. Cha. V. i. 369.)

d Glanvil. l. 13. c 32. l. 9. c. 10 .... Pref. 9 Rep .... 2 Inst. 526.

e l. 2. c. 2 f c. l. §. 3.

sunt instituta, quae Edgarus rex consilio sapientum suorum instituit;" or to be enacted by those sages with the advice of the king, as, "haec sunt judicia, qua sapientes consilio regis Ethelstani instituerunt;" or lastly, to be enacted by them both together, as, "haec sunt institutiones, quas rex Edmundus et episcopi sui cum sapientibus suis instituerunt."

There is also no doubt but these great councils were occasionally held under the first princes of the Norman line. Glanvil, who wrote in the reign of Henry the second; speaking of the particular amount of an amercement in the sheriff's court, says, it had never yet been ascertained by the general assise, or assembly, but was left to the custom of particular counties.g Here the general assise is spoken of as a meeting well known, and it's statutes or decisions are put in a manifest contradistinction to custom, or the common law. And in Edward the third's time, an act of parliament, made in the reign of William the conqueror, was pleaded in the case of the abbey of St. Edmund's-bury, and judicially allowed by the court.h

Hence it indisputably appears, that parliaments, or general councils, are coeval with the kingdom itself. How those parliaments were constituted and composed, is another question, which has been matter of great dispute among our learned antiquaries; and, particularly, whether the commons were summoned at all; or, if summoned, at what period they began to form a distinct assembly. But it is not my intention here to enter into controversies of this sort. I hold it sufficient that it is generally agreed, that in the main the constitution of parliament, as it now stands, was marked out so long ago as the seventeenth year of king John, A. D. 1215, in the great charter granted by that prince; wherein he promises to summon all archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons, personally; and all other tenants in chief under the crown, by the sheriff and bailiffs; to meet at a certain place, with forty days notice, to assess aids and

g Quanta esse debeat per nullam assissam generalem determinatum est, sed pro consuetudire su galorum comitatuum debetum l 9 c 10

h Year book 21 Edw. III 60

acutages when necessary. And this constitution has subsisted in fact at least from the year 1266, 49 Hen. III: there being still extant writs of that date, to summon knights, citizens, and burgesses to parliament. I proceed, therefore, to inquire wherein consists this constitution of parliament, as it now stands, and has stood for the space of at least five hundred years. And in the prosecution of this inquiry, I shall consider, first, the manner and time of it's assembling: secondly, it's constituent parts:

thirdly, the laws and customs relating to parliament, considered as one aggregate body: fourthly and fifthly, the laws and customs relating to each house, separately and distinctly taken:

sixthly, the methods of proceeding, and of making statutes, in both houses: and lastly, the manner of the parliament's adjournment, prorogation, and dissolution.

I. As to the manner and time of assembling.3 The parliament is regularly to be summoned by the king's writ or letter, issued out of chancery by advice of the privy council, at least forty days before it begins to sit. It is a branch of the royal prerogative, that no parliament can be convened by its own authority, or by the authority of any, except the king alone. And this prerogative is founded upon very good reason. For, supposing it had a right to meet spontaneously, without being called together, it is impossible to conceive that all the members, and each of the houses, would agree unanimously upon the proper time and place of meeting; and if half of the members met, and half absented themselves, who shall determine which is really the legislative body, the part assembled, or that which stays away?4 It is therefore necessary that the parliament should be

3. The manner and time of assembling the congress of the United States, is provided for in the C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 4.

The manner and time of assembling the legislature of the state, is likewise provided for, in C. V. Art. 4. L. V. Edi. 1794, c. 17, 162, and Sessions Acts, 1796, c. 9. 1797, c. 15. and 1798, c. 14.

4. The inconveniencies here suggested have been so completely obviated by the provisions contained in the federal, and state constitutions and laws, as to shew them to be merely creatures of the imagination.

called together at a determinate time and place: and highly becoming it's dignity and independence, that it should be called together by none but one of it's own constituent parts: and, of the three constituent parts, this office can only appertain to the king; as he is a single person, whose will may be uniform and steady; the first person in the nation, being superior to both houses in dignity; and the only branch of the legislature that has a separate existence, and is capable of performing any act at a time when no parliament is in being.i Nor is it an exception to this rule that, by some modern statutes, on the demise of a king or queen, if there be then no parliament in being, the last parliament revives, and is to sit again for six months, unless dissolved by the successor: for this revived parliament must have been originally summoned by the crown.

It is true, that by a statute, 16 Car. I. c. 1. it was enacted, that, if the king neglected to call a parliament for three years, the peers might assemble and issue out writs for choosing one; and, in case of the neglect of the peers, the constituents might meet and elect one themselves.5 But this, if ever put in practice, would have been liable to all the inconveniences I have just now stated: and the act itself, was esteemed so highly detrimental and injurious to the royal prerogative, that it was repealed by statute 16 Car. II. c. 1. From thence, therefore, no precedent can be drawn.

It is also true, that the convention-parliament, which restored king Charles the second, met, above a month before his return;

i By motives somewhat similar to these, the republic of Venice was actuated, when towards the end of the seventh century it abolished the tribunes of the people, who were annually chosen by the several districts of the Venetian territory, and constituted a doge in their stead; in whom the executive power of the state at present resides. For which their historians have assigned these, as the principal reasons. 1. The propriety of having the executive power a part of the legislative, or senate; to which the former annual magistrates were not admitted. 2. The necessity of having a single person to convoke the great council when separated. (Mod. Un. Hist. xxvii. 15 )

5. Both congress, and the state legislature, must meet at least once a year. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 4. C. V. Art. 4. 10.

the lords by their own authority, and the commons, in pursuance of writs issued in the name of the keepers of the liberty of England by authority of parliament: and, that the said parliament sat till the twenty-ninth of December, full seven months after the restoration; and enacted many laws, several of which are still in force. But this was for the necessity of the thing, which supersedes all law; for, if they had not so met, it was morally impossible that the kingdom should have settled in peace.6 And the first thing done after the king's return was to pass an act, declaring this to be a good parliament, notwithstanding the defect of the king's writs.i So that, as the royal prerogative was chiefly wounded by their so meeting; and as the king himself, who alone had a right to object, consented to wave the objection, this cannot be drawn into an example, in prejudice of the rights of the crown. Besides, we should also remember, that it was, at that time, a great doubt among the lawyers,k whether even this healing act made it a good parliament; and held by very many in the negative; though it seems to have been too nice a scruple. And yet, out of abundant caution, it was thought necessary to confirm it's acts in the next parliament, by statute 13 Car. II. c. 7, and c. 14.

It is likewise true, that, at the time of the revolution, A. D. 1688, the lords and commons, by their own authority, and upon the summons of the prince of Orange, (afterwards king William) met in a convention, and therein disposed of the crown and kingdom. But it must be remembered, that this assembling was upon a like principle of necessity as at the restoration; that is, upon a full conviction that king James the second had abdicated the government; and, that the throne was thereby vacant: which supposition of the individual members was confirmed by their

i Stat. 12 Car. II. c. 1. k 1 Sid. 1.

6. The conventions which were held in Virginia during the existence of the regal government, assembled in consequence of recommendations from the members of the general assembly, which had been dissolved by the governor; or of recommendations from the general congress held at Philadelphia.

concurrent resolution, when they actually came together. And, in such a case as the palpable vacancy of a throne, it follows, ex necessitate rei, that the form of the royal writs must be laid aside, otherwise no parliament can ever meet again. For, let us put another possible case, and suppose, for the sake of argument, that the whole royal line should at any time fail and become extinct, which would indisputably vacate the throne: in this situation it seems reasonable to presume, that the body of the nation, consisting of lords and commons, would have a right to meet and settle the government; otherwise, there must be no government at all. And upon this and no other principle did the convention in 1688 assemble. The vacancy of the throne was precedent to their meeting without any royal summons, not a consequence of it. They did not assemble without writ, and then make the throne vacant; but, the throne being previously vacant by the king's abdication, they assembled without writ, as they must do if they assembled at all. Had the throne been full, their meeting would not have been regular; but, as it was really empty, such meeting became absolutely necessary. And accordingly it is declared by statute 1 W. & M. st. 1. c. 1. that this convention was really the two houses of parliament, notwithstanding the want of writs or other defects of form. So that, notwithstanding these two capital exceptions, which were justifiable only on a principle of necessity, (and each of which, by the way, induced a revolution in the government) the rule laid down is in general certain, that the king, only, can convoke a parliament.

And this by the antient statutes of the realml he is bound to do every year, or oftener, if need be. Not that he is, or ever was, obliged by these statutes to call a new parliament every year; but only to permit a parliament to sit annually for the redress of grievances, and dispatch of business, if need be. These last words are so loose and vague, that such of our monarchs as were inclined to govern without parliaments, neglected the convoking them, sometimes for a very considerable period, under pretence that there was no need of them. But, to remedy this, by the statute 16 Car. II. c. 1, it is enacted, that the sitting and holding of parliaments shall not be intermitted

1 4 Edw. III. c. 14. 36 Edw. III. c. 10.

above three years at the most. And by the statute 1 W. and M. st. 2. c. 2, it is declared to be one of the rights of the people, that for redress of all grievances, and for the amending, strengthening, and preserving the laws, parliaments ought to be held frequently. And this indefinite frequency, is again reduced to a certainty by statute 6 W. and M. c. 2, which enacts, as the statute of Charles the second had done before, that a new parliament shall be called, within three yearsm after the determination of the former.7

II. The constituent parts of a parliament are the next objects of our inquiry. And these are, the king's majesty, sitting there in his royal political capacity, and the three estates of the realm: the lords spiritual, the lords temporal, (who sit, together with the king, in one house) and the commons, who sit by themselves in another. And the king and these three estates, together, form the great corporation or body politic of the kingdom,n of which the king is said to be caput, principium, et finis. For upon their coming together the king meets them, either in person or by representation; without which there can be no beginning of a parliament:o and he also has alone the power of dissolving them.8

It is highly necessary for preserving the ballance of the constitution, that the executive power should be a branch, though not the whole, of the legislative. The total union of them, we have seen, would be productive of tyranny; the total disjunc-

m This is the same period, that is allowed in Sweden, for intermitting their general diets, or parliamentary assemblies Mod. Un. Hist. xxxiii. 15. n 4 Inst. 1, 2. Stat. 1 Eliz. c. 3. Hale of Parl. 1. o 4 Inst. 6.

7. Both. congress, and the legislature of the state, as was before observed, must assemble once a year, at least. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 4. C. V. Art 4.

8. The president of the United States may convene congress, and the governor of the state may likewise convene the general assembly; but neither of them have the power of dissolution, or even of prorogation. C. U. S. Art. 2. C. V. Art. 10.

tion of them, for the present, would in the end produce the same effects, by causing that union against which it seems to provide. The legislature would soon become tyrannical, by making continual encroachments, and gradually assuming to itself the rights of the executive power.9 Thus the long parliament of Charles the first, while it acted in a constitutional manner, with the royal concurrence, redressed many heavy grievances and established many salutary laws. But, when the two houses assumed the power of legislation, in exclusion of the royal authority, they soon after assumed likewise the reins of administration; and, in consequence of these united powers, overturned both church and state, and established a worse oppression than any they pretended to remedy. To hinder therefore any such encroachments, the king is himself a part of the parliament: and, as this is the reason of his being so, very properly therefore the share of legislation, which the constitution has placed in the crown, consists in the power of rejecting rather than resolving; this being sufficient to answer the end proposed.10 For we may apply to the royal negative, in this instance, what Cicero observes of the negative of the Roman tribunes, that the crown has not any power of doing wrong, but merely of preventing wrong from being done.p The crown cannot begin of itself any alterations in the present established law; but it may approve or disapprove of the alterations suggested and consented to by the two houses. The legislative, therefore, cannot abridge the executive power of any rights which it now has by law, without it's own consent; since the law must perpetually stand as it now does, unless all the powers will agree to alter it. And herein indeed consists the

p Sulla ... tribunis plebis sua lege injuriae faciendae potestatem ademit, auxilii ferendi reliquit. De LL. 3. 9.

9. How far this has been found to be true in practice in Virginia, the student may collect from Mr. Jefferson's Notes. Art. Constitution. §. 4. &c.

10. The share of legislation which the C. U. S. has confided to the president, consists in a temporary power of rejection, only, instead of the absolute power here spoken of. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 7. The executive authority in Virginia has no part in the legislative.

true excellence of the English government, that all the parts of it form a mutual check upon each other.11 In the legislature, the people are a check upon the nobility, and the nobility a check upon the people; by the mutual privilege of rejecting what the other has resolved: while the king is a check upon both, which preserves the executive power from encroachments. And this very executive power is again checked, and kept within due bounds, by the two houses, through the privilege they have of inquiring into, impeaching, and punishing the conduct (not indeed of the king,q which would destroy his constitutional independence; but, which is more beneficial to the public) of his evil and pernicious counsellors.12 Thus, every branch of our civil polity supports and is supported, regulates and is regulated, by the rest: for the two houses naturally drawing in two directions of opposite interest, and the prerogative in another still different from them both, they mutually keep each other from exceeding their proper limits; while the whole is prevented from separation, and artificially connected together by the mixed nature of the crown, which is a part of the legislative, and the sole executive magistrate. Like three distinct powers q Stat. 12. Car. II. c. 30.

11. "The mutual control, the well poised balance, of the several members of the British legislature; are the visions of theoretical, or the pretext of practical politicians. It is a government not of check, but of conspiracy." Mackintosh on the French Revolution, London, 1791, p. 340.

12. A late political writer in England, considers "the practical claim of impeachment the vaunted responsibility of ministers, as the most sorry juggle of political empiricism, by which a people were ever attempted to be lulled into servitude." Mackintosh on the French revolution, p. 332. Lond. 1791 .... If there be any part of the constitution of the United States that deserves unqualified censure, it is that which prescribes the mode of trying impeachments. See appendix Note D. The power of impeachment is indeed given by the constitution, Art. 1. §. 2, 3. But the practical exercise of that power, if it ever be resorted to, will demonstrate the inadequacy of that part of the constitution. In Virginia, impeachments must be tried before the general court: or, the court of appeals; if the person impeached be a judge of the general court. C. V. Art. 16, 17.

in mechanics, they jointly impel the machine of government in a direction different from what either, acting by itself, would have done; but, at the same time, in a direction partaking of each, and formed out of all: a direction which constitutes the true line of the liberty and happiness of the community.13

Let us now consider these constituent parts of the sovereign power, or parliament, each in a separate view. The king's majesty will be the subject of the next, and many subsequent chapters, to which we must at present refer.

The next in order are the spiritual lords.14 These consist of two arch-bishops, and twenty-four bishops; and, at the dissolution of monasteries by Henry VIII, consisted likewise of twenty-six mitred abbots, and two priors:r a very considerable body, and, in those times, equal in number to the temporal nobility.s All these hold, or are supposed to hold, certain antient baronies under the king: for William the conqueror thought proper to change the spiritual tenure of frank-almoign or free alms, under which the bishops held their lands during the Saxon government, into the feodal or Norman tenure by barony; which subjected their estates to all civil charges and assessments, from which they were before exempt:t and, in right of succession to those baronies, which were unalienable from their respective dignities, the bishops and abbots were allowed their seats in the house of lords.u But, though these lords spiritual are, in the eye of the law, a distinct estate from the lords temporal, and are so distinguished in most of our acts of parliament, yet in

r Seld. tit. hon. 2, 5, 27.

s Co. Litt. 97.

t Gilb. Hist. Exch. 55. Spelm. W. I. 291.

u Glanv. 7, 1. Co. Litt. 97. Seld. tit. hon. 2, 5, 19.

13. How far this is practically true, the student may collect from a perusal of Mackintosh's Defence of the French revolution; Lond. 1791. p. 264, &c. and the masterly tracts, entitled Political Disquisitions, by J. Burgh, Esq. published in London 1773, or 1774, and reprinted in Philadelphia, 1775.

14. The clergy are utterly excluded from the legislature of Virginia, by the constitution, Art. 14. But this is practically disregarded.

practice they are usually blended together, under the one name of the lords; they intermix in their votes; and the majority of such intermixture joins both estates. And from this want of a separate assembly and separate negative of the prelates, some writers have argued,w very cogently, that the lords spiritual and temporal are now in reality only one estate:x which is unquestionably true in every effectual sense, though the antient distinction between them, still nominally continues. For, if a bill should pass their house, there is no doubt of it's validity, though every lord spiritual should vote against it; of which Selden,y and Sir Edward Coke,z give many instances: as, on the other hand, I presume it would be equally good, if the lords temporal present were inferior to the bishops in number, and every one of those temporal lords gave his vote to reject the bill; though sir Edward Coke seems to doubt,zz whether this would not be an ordinance, rather than an act, of parliament.

The lords temporal consist of all the peers of the realm, (the bishops not being in strictness held to be such, but merely lords of parliament)a by whatever title of nobility distinguished; dukes, marquisses, earls, viscounts, or barons; of which dignities we shall speak more hereafter. Some of these sit by descent, as do all antient peers; some by creation, as do all new-made ones;

others, since the union with Scotland, by election, which is the case of the sixteen peers, who represent the body of the Scots nobility. Their number is indefinite, and may be increased at will by the power of the crown: and once, in the reign of queen Anne

w Whitelocke on Parliam. c. 72. Warburt. Alliance. b 2. c. 3. x Dyer. 60.

y Baronage. p. 1. c. 6. The act of uniformity, 1 Eliz c. 2, was passed with the dissent of all the bishops; (Gibs. codex. 286.) and, therefore, the stile of lords spiritual is omitted throughout the whole.

z 2 Inst. 585, 6, 7. See Keilw, 184; where it is holden by the judges;

7 Hen. VIII. that the king may hold a parliament without any spiritual lords. This was also exemplified in fact in the two first parliaments of Charles II;

wherein no bishops were summoned, till after the repeal of the statute 16 Car. I. c. 27. by statute 13 Car. II st. 1, c, 2.

zz 4 Inst. 25. a Staunford. P. C. 153.

there was an instance of creating no less than twelve together;

in contemplation of which, in the reign of king George the first, a bill passed the house of lords, and was countenanced by the then ministry, for limiting the number of the peerage. This was thought, by some, to promise a great acquisition to the constitution, by restraining the prerogative from gaining the ascendant in that august assembly, by pouring in at pleasure an unlimited number of new created lords. But the bill was ill-relished and miscarried in the house of commons, whose leading members were then desirous to keep the avenues to the other house as open and easy as possible".

The distinction of rank and honours is necessary in every well-governed state:16 in order to reward such as are eminent for their services to the public, in a manner the most desirable to individuals, and yet without burden to the community; exciting thereby an ambitious yet laudable ardour, and generous emulation, in others.17 And emulation, or virtuous ambition, is a

15. Mackintosh, speaking of this bill, observes, "It is a matter of perfect notoriety that the rejection of it was occasioned by the succession of Sir Robert Walpole from the Cabinet, and the opposition of him and his party to it was merely as a ministerial measure. The debate was not guided by any general legislative principles. It was simply an experiment on the strength of two parties contending for power." Def. of F. Revolution, 267.

16. The student will find this political dogma disputed, Appendix, Note D.

17. See Mackintosh's Def. of the French Revo. Lon. 1791, p. 81, 339, &c. Paine's Rights of Man, Albany Edi. 52,53, &c. Burgh's Political Disquisitions, Phila. 1775, Vol. II. p. 89. The latter concludes his remarks in this manner. "That the merit chiefly regarded in our times, is the merit of seconding the views of the court, and that the greatest demerit, according to our modern way of estimating demerit, is opposing court measures; appears from the court's late proceedings against my incomparable friend the great Dr. Franklin, whom they have deprived of his place of deputy-postmaster of North-America, which place he himself improved from being a burthen upon the government, to it's bringing a revenue of several thousands a year; all because that faithful trustee would not sit silent, and see his constituents betrayed."

spring of action, which, however dangerous or invidious in a mere republic, or under a despotic sway, will certainly be attended with good effects under a free monarchy; where, without destroying it's existence, it's excesses may be continually restrained by that superior power, from which all honour is derived. Such a spirit, when nationally diffused, gives life and vigour to the community; it sets all the wheels of government in motion, which, under a wise regulator, may be directed to any beneficial purpose; and, thereby, every individual may be made subservient to the public good, while he principally means to promote his own particular views. A body of nobility is also more peculiarly necessary in our mixed and compounded constitution, in order to support the rights of both the crown and the people, by forming a barrier to withstand the encroachments of both.18 It creates and preserves that gradual scale of dignity, which proceeds from the peasant to the prince; rising like a pyramid from a broad foundation, and diminishing to a point as it rises. It is this ascending and contracting proportion that adds stability to any government; for when the departure is sudden from one extreme to another, we may pronounce that state to be precarious. The nobility, therefore, are the pillars, which are reared from among the people, more immediately to support the throne: and, if that falls, they must also be buried under it's ruins. Accordingly, when in the last century the commons had determined to extirpate monarchy, they also voted the house of lords to be useless and dangerous. And since titles of nobility are thus expedient in the state, it is also expedient that their owners should form an independent and separate branch of the legislature(18). If they

18. "The English nobility buried themselves with Charles the first, under the ruins of the throne; and before that time, when Philip the second endeavoured to tempt the French with the allurement of liberty, the crown was constantly supported by a nobility, who think it an honour to obey a king, but consider it as the lowest infamy to share the power with the people." Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws, Lib. 8, 9.

(18.) The commentator, in this last sentence, offers a particular reason why a body of nobility is necessary to the support of the British constitution; the proposition contained in the first sentence of this paragraph, "that the distinction of ranks and honours is necessary

were confounded with the mass of the people; and, like them, had only a vote in electing representatives, their privileges would soon be borne down and overwhelmed by the popular torrent, which would effectually level all distinctions. It is, therefore, highly necessary, that the body of nobles should have a distinct assembly, distinct deliberations, and distinct powers from the commons.

The commons consist of all such men of property in the kingdom, as have not seats in the house of lords; every one of which has a voice in parliament, either personally, or by his representatives.19 In a free state, every man who is supposed a free agent, ought to be in some measure his own governor; and, therefore, a branch, at least, of the legislative power should reside in the whole body of the people. And this power, when the territories of the state are small, and it's citizens easily known, should be exercised by the people in their aggregate or collective capacity, as was wisely ordained in the petty republics of Greece, and the first rudiments of the Roman state. But this will be highly inconvenient, when the public territory is extended to any considerable degree, and the number of citizens is increased. Thus when, after the social war, all the burghers of Italy were admitted free citizens of Rome, and each had a vote in the public assemblies, it became impossible to distinguish the spurious from the real voter; and, from that time, all elections and popular deliberations grew tumultuous and disor-

in every well governed state," is general. From the particular reason abovementioned, he draws a general conclusion; and from thence proceeds to another general proposition, viz. "Since titles of nobility are thus expedient in the state, it is also expedient that their owners should form an independent and separate branch of the legislature." The student must take heed not to be misled by a mode of reasoning which thus confounds general and particular propositions and conclusions together.

19. How far this is from being practically true, the student may discover by perusing Locke on Government, c. 13. Burgh's Political Disquisitions, Vol. I. p. 39, &c. Mackintosh's Def. of the French Revolution, 265, 336, &c.

derly; which paved the way for Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Caesar, to trample on the liberties of their country, and at last to dissolve the commonwealth. In so large a state as ours it is, therefore, very wisely contrived, that the people should do that by their representatives, which it is impracticable to perform in person: the representatives, chosen by a number of minute and separate districts, wherein all the voters are, or easily may be, distinguished. The counties are, therefore, represented by knights, elected by the proprietors of lands: the cities and boroughs are represented by citizens and burgesses, chosen by the mercantile part, or supposed trading interest of the nation;

much in the same manner as the burghers in the diet of Sweden are chosen by the corporate towns, Stockholm sending four, as London does with us, other cities two, and some only one.b The number of English representatives is 513, and of Scotts 45; in all 558. And every member though chosen by one particular district, when elected and returned, serves for the whole realm. For the end of his coming thither is not particular, but general;

not barely to advantage his constituents, but the common wealth;

to advise his majesty (as appears from the writ of summons)c "de communi consilio super negotiis quibusdam arduis et urgentibus, regem, statum, et defensionem regni Angliae et ecclesiae Anglicanae concernentibus." And therefore he is not bound, like a deputy in the united provinces, to consult with, or take the advice of, his constituents upon any particular point, unless he himself thinks it proper or prudent so to do.20

b Mod. Un. Hist. xxxiii. 18. c. 4 Inst. 14.

20. How far this doctrine maybe true, as it applies to the British government, will not be here contested; but the Editor has attempted, at least, to shew, that it is inapplicable to the nature of our representative democracy. Appendix, note D.

"If the members of the house of commons are not obliged to regard the instructions of their constituents; the people of England choose a set of despots every seven years, and are as perfect slaves as the Turks, excepting the few months of a general election." Burgh's Political Disquisitions, Vol. I. p. 185. Phila. 1775. the same writer insists with great apparent reason on his side, that the denial of responsibility is a novel doctrine in England. Ibid. 180, to 205.

These are the constituent parts of a parliament; the king, the lords spiritual and temporal, and the commons. Parts, of which each is so necessary, that the consent of all three is required to make any new law that shall bind the subject. Whatever is enacted for law by one, or by two only, of the three is no statute; and to it no regard is due, unless in matters relating to their own privileges. For though, in times of madness and anarchy, the commons once passed a voted, "that whatever is enacted or declared for law by the commons in parliament assembled, hath the force of law; and all the people of this nation are concluded thereby, although the consent and concurrence of the king or house of peers be not had thereto;" yet, when the constitution was restored in all it's forms, it was particularly enacted by statute 13 Car. II. c. 1, that if any person shall maliciously or advisedly affirm, that both or either of the houses of parliament have any legislative authority without the king, such person shall incur all the penalties of a praemunire.

III. We are next to examine the laws and customs relating to parliament, thus united together and considered as one aggregate body.

The power and jurisdiction of parliament, says sir Edward Coke,e is so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. And of this high court, he adds, it may be truly said, "si antiquitatem spectes, est vetustissima; si dignitatem, est honoratissima;

si jurisdictionem, est capacissima." It hath sovereign and uncontrolable authority in the making, confirming, enlarging, restraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving and expounding of laws, concerning matters of all possible denominations, ecclesiastical, or temporal, civil, military, maritime, or criminal; this being the place where that absolute despotic power, which must, in all governments,21 reside somewhere, is entrusted by the

d 4 Jan. 1648.

e 4 Inst. 36.

21. In the United States this absolute power is not delegated to the government: it remains with the people, whose safety requires that the government which they have themselves established, should

constitution of these kingdoms. All mischiefs and grievances, operations and remedies, that transcend the ordinary course of the laws, are within the reach of this extraordinary tribunal. It can regulate or new model the succession to the crown; as was done in the reign of Henry VIII and William III. It can alter the established religion of the land;22 as was done in a variety of instances, in the reigns of king Henry VIII and his three children. It can change and create afresh even the constitution of the kingdom and of parliaments themselves;23 as was done by the act of union, and the several statutes for triennial and septennial elections. It can, in short, do every thing that is not naturally impossible; and, therefore, some have not scrupled to call it's power, by a figure rather too bold, the omnipotence of parliament.24 True it is, that what the parliament doth, no authority upon earth can undo. So that it is a matter most essential to the liberties of this kingdom, that such members be delegated to this important trust, as are most eminent for their probity, their fortitude, and their knowledge; for it was a known apothegm of the great lord treasurer Burleigh, "that England could never be ruined but by a parliament: and, as

be limited. "The powers not delegated to the United States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people." Amendments to the C.

U. S. Art. 12.

22. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. Amdts. C. U. S. Art. 3. Religion or the duty which we owe to our Creator, and the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence, and therefore all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion according to the dictates of conscience. Bill of Rights. Art. 16.

23. The legislature have no such power in our government. Congress may propose amendments; but they must be ratified by two thirds of the state legislatures.[] C. U. S. Art. 5. The people, only, when they see fit, can alter the state constitution, there being no provision for changing it in any other manner.

24. See note, p. 52. Vol. I. Part I.

sir Matthew Hale observes,f this being the highest and greatest court, over which none other can have jurisdiction in the kingdom, if by any means a misgovernment should any way fall upon it, the subjects of this kingdom are left without all manner of remedy. To the same purpose the president Montesquieu, though I trust, too hastily, presages;g that as Rome, Sparta, and Carthage have lost their liberty and perished, so the constitution of England will in time lose it's liberty, will perish: it will perish, whenever the legislative power shall become more corrupt than the executive.

It must be owned that Mr. Locke,h and other theoretical writers, have held, that "there remains still inherent in the people a supreme power to remove or alter the legislative, when they find the legislative act contrary to the trust reposed in them: for, when such trust is abused, it is thereby forfeited, and devolves to those who gave it."25 But, however, just this conclusion may be, in theory, we cannot practically adopt it, nor take any legal steps for carrying it into execution, under any dispensation of government at present actually existing. For this devolution of power, to the people at large, includes in it a dissolution of the whole form of government established by that people; reduces all the members to their original state of equality; and, by annihilating the sovereign power, repeals all positive laws whatsoever before enacted. No human laws will, therefore, suppose a case, which at once must destroy all law and compel men to build afresh upon a new foundation; nor will they make provision for so desperate an event, as must render all legal provisions ineffectual.i So long, therefore, as the English constitution lasts, we may venture to affirm, that the power of parliament is absolute and without control.

f of parliament, 49. h on Gov. p 3 § 149, 227.

g Sp. L. 11. 6. i Whitelocke, c. 50. 4 Inst. 47.

25. This principle is expressly recognized in our government. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 11, 12. See Declaration of Independence, and Virginia Bill of Rights, Art. 3.

In order to prevent the mischiefs that might arise, by placing this extensive authority in hands that are either incapable, or else improper, to manage it, it is provided by the custom and law of parliament, that no one shall sit or vote in either house, unless he be twenty-one years of age.26 This is also expressly declared by statute 7 and 8 W. III. c. 25, with regard to the house of commons; doubts having arisen, from some contradictory adjudications, whether or no a minor was incapacitated from sitting in that house.k It is also enacted by statute 7 Jac. I. c. 6, that no member be permitted to enter into the house of commons, till he hath taken the oath of allegiance before the lord steward or his deputy: and by 30 Car. II. st. 2. and 1 Geo. I. c. 13, that no member shall vote or sit in either house, till he hath in the presence of the house taken the oath of allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, and subscribed and repeated the declaration against transubstantiation, and invocation of saints, and the sacrifice of the mass.27 Aliens, unless naturalized, were likewise by the law of parliament incapable to serve therein:l and now it is enacted, by statute 12 and 13 W. III. c. 2, that no alien, even though he be naturalized, shall be capable of being a member of either house of parliament.28 And there are not only

j See page 244. k Com. Journ. 16 Dec. 1690. 1 Com. Journ. 10 Mar. 1623. 18 Feb. 1625.

26. A member of the federal house of representatives must be twenty-five years of age, and a member of the senate thirty. C. U. S. Art. I. A member of the house of delegates of Virginia must be twenty-one, and a member of the senate twenty-five years of age. C. V. Art. 6. L. V. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17.

27. The senators and representatives of the United States, and the members of the state legislatures, shall be bound, by oath or affirmation, to support the federal constitution. C. U. S. Art. 6. The members of the state legislature are also bound to take an oath of fidelity to the state. Ord. of Conv. May 1776, c. 3. V. L. 1779, C. 5. Edi. 1794, c. 57.

28. No person shall be a representative in congress who shall not have been seven years a citizen of the United States; nor a senator, who shall not have been nine years a citizen. C. U. S. Art. 1. No person can be eligible to a seat in the state legislature, until an ac-

these standing incapacities; but if any person is made a peer by the king, or elected to serve in the house of commons by the people, yet may the respective houses upon complaint of any crime in such person, and proof thereof, adjudge him disabled and incapable to sit as a member:m 29 and this by the law and custom of parliament.

For, as every court of justice hath laws and customs for it's direction, some the civil and canon, some the common law, others their own peculiar laws and customs, so the high court of parliament hath also it's own peculiar law, called the lex et consuetudo parliamenti, a law which sir Edward Coken observes, is "ab omnibus quaerenda, a multis ignorata, a paucis cognita." It will not, therefore, be expected that we should enter into the examination of this law, with any degree of minuteness: since, as the same learned author assures us,o it is much better to be learned out of the rolls of parliament, and other records, and by precedents, and continual experience, than can be expressed by any one man. It will be sufficient to observe, that the whole of the law and custom of parliament has it's original from this one maxim, "that whatever matter arises concerning either house of parliament, ought to be examined, discussed, and adjudged in that house to which it relates, and not elsewhere."p 30

m Whitelocke of parl. c. 102. See Lord's Journ. 3 May 1620. 13 May 1624. 26 May 1725. Com. Journ. 14 Feb. 1580. 21 Jun. 1628. 9 Nov. 21 Jan. 1640. 6 Mar. 1676. 6 Mar. 1711. 17 Feb. 1769.

n 1 Inst. 11.

o 4 Inst. 50.

p 4 Inst. 15.

tual residence in the state for five years after taking the oath of fidelity, nor until he shall have evinced a permanent attachment thereto, by intermarrying with a citizen of the United States, or purchased lands to the value of three hundred dollars. V. L. 1786, c. 10. Edi. 1794, c. 110.

29. Each house of congress may, with concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 5.

30. Each house may determine the rules of its own proceedings, both in the federal and in the state legislature. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 5. C. V. Art. 7.

Hence, for instance, the lords will not suffer the commons to interfere in settling the election of a peer of Scotland; the commons will not allow the lords to judge of the election of a burgess; nor will either house permit the subordinate courts of law to examine the merits of either case. But the maxims upon which they proceed, together with the method of proceeding, rest entirely in the breast of the parliament itself; and are not defined and ascertained by any particular stated laws (30).

The privileges of parliament are likewise very large and indefinite.31 And, therefore, when in 31 Hen. VI, the house of lords propounded a question to the judges concerning them, the chief justice, sir John Fortescue, in the name of his brethren, declared, "that they ought not to make answer to that question:

for it hath not been used aforetime that the justices should, in any wise, determine the privileges of the high court of parlia-ment. For it is so high and mighty ink's nature, that it may make law: and that which is law, it may make no law: and

(30) See some very just and pertinent remarks of professor Christian upon this passage,

31. The privileges both of the federal and state legislature, so far at least as respects the members, appear to be few and definite. "They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to, and returning from the same: and for any speech, or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 6. V. L. 1705, c. 1. §. 13. Edi. 1769 .... 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17. 1798,c. 11.

"All privilege is a nuisance, whose extent is unknown; because the subject is thereby in danger of falling into undesigned offence. But it has always been made a point to keep the extent of parlia-mentary privilege, prerogative royal, ministerial power, &c. pro-found secrets. These are the arcana imperii: in English, "tricks of state." The truth is, our ministers choose to secure a small convenience to themselves (the convenience of keeping the people in fear of them) though at the risque of great loss to the people." Burgh's Pol. Disq. Vol. I. p. 206. Phila. 1775.

the determination and knowledge of that privilege belongs to the lords of parliament, and not to the justices."q Privilege of parliament was principally established, in order to protect it's members not only from being molested by their fellow-subjects, but also more especially from being oppressed by the power of the crown. If, therefore, all the privileges of parliament were once set down and ascertained, and no privilege to be allowed but what was so defined and determined, it were easy for the executive power to devise some new case, not within the line of privilege, and under pretence thereof to harass any refractory member, and violate the freedom of parliament.32 The dignity and independence of the two houses are, therefore, in great measure preserved by keeping their privileges indefinite.(32) Some, however, of the more notorious privileges of the members of either house, are, privilege of speech, of person, of their domestics, and of their lands and goods. As to the first, privilege of speech, it is declared by the statute 1 W. & M. st. 2. c. 2, as one

q Seld. Baronage, part. 1. c. 4.

32. "Judge Blackstone, in his account of the unknown and unlimited powers and privileges of parliament, seems to forget that the safety of the people limits all free governments. It is true that the people of England, not being accustomed, till lately, to apprehend danger from any quarter but the throne (tyranny having been an old trick among kings from Nimrod's time down,) have all along encouraged and supported their parliaments in extending their power, as the only sure bulwark against regal encroachments. But latter ages have taught us the necessity of looking out for security against parliamentary encroachments." Burgh's Pol. Disq. Vol. I. 226.

"There is a clear reason to be assigned, why the privilege and powers of the British parliament are undefinable, which will by no means properly apply to our legislature. Their constitution is established only on precedents," &c. See the passage as quoted at large, page 52. Vol. I. Part I.

(32.) Mr. Christian makes some very just remarks on this passage; in the course of which he contends that they ought to be limited by those boundaries which afford the greatest share of security to the constituent, who may be equally injured by their extension and diminution.

of the liberties of the people, "that the freedom of speech, and debates, and proceedings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or questioned, in any court or place, out of parliament."33 And this freedom of speech is particularly demanded of the king in person, by the speaker of the house of commons, at the opening of every new parliament. So, likewise, are the other privileges, of persons, servants, lands and goods: which are immunities as antient as Edward the confessor; in whose lawsr we find this precept, "ad synodus venientibus, sive summoniti sint, sive per se quid agendum habuerint, sit summa pax:" and so too, in the old Gothic constitutions, "extenditur haec pax et securitas ad quatuordecim dies, convocato regni senatu."s This included formerly not only privilege from illegal violence, but also from legal arrests, and seizures by process from the courts of law. And still, to assault by violence a member of either house, or his menial servants, is a high contempt of parliament, and there punished with the utmost severity. It has, likewise, peculiar penalties annexed to it in the courts of law, by the statutes 5 Hen. IV. c. 6, and 11 Hen. VI. c. 11. Neither can any member of either house be arrested and taken into custody, unless for some indictable offence, without a breach of the privilege of parliament.

But all other privileges, which derogate from the common law, in matters of civil right, are now at an end, save only as to the freedom of the member's person; which, in a peer, (by the privilege of peerage) is, for ever, sacred and inviolable; and, in

r cap. 3. s Steiran. de jure Goth. l. 3. c. 3.

33. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 6. accordant. See the note in the last page.

The act of 1798, c. 11, made to preserve the freedom of speech, and of proceedings in the legislature, makes it a high misdemeanor to arrest or prosecute any member of either house, on account of any words spoken, or written, or any proposition made, or proceedings had in either house of assembly. the act of congress, commonly called the sedition act, probably gave rise to this act of the Virginia legislature. L. V. 1798. Sessions acts.

a commoner, (by the privilege of parliament) for forty days after every prorogation, and forty days before the next appointed meeting:t 34 which is now in effect, as long as the parliament subsists, it seldom being prorogued for more than fourscore days at a time. As to all other privileges, which obstruct the ordinary course of justice, they were restrained by the statutes 12 W. III. c. 3. 2 & 3 Ann. c. 18, and 11 Geo. II. c. 24, and are now totally abolished by statute 10 Geo. III. c. 50, which enacts, that any suit may at any time be brought against any peer or member of parliament, their servants, or any other person entitled to privilege of parliament; which shall not be impeached or delayed by pretence of any such privilege; except that the person of a member of the house of commons shall not thereby be subjected to any arrest or imprisonment. Likewise, for the benefit of commerce, it is provided by statute 4 Geo. III. c. 33, that any trader, having privilege of parliament, may be served with legal process for any just debt to the amount of 100 l. and unless he makes satisfaction within two months, it shall be deemed an act of bankruptcy; and that commissions of bankrupt may be issued against such privileged traders, in like manner as against any other.

t 2 Lev. 72.

34. The privileges of the members of the general assembly in Virginia, continue during the session, and one day before and after, for every twenty miles they must necessarily travel. And in the mean time all process in which they are parties shall be suspended without abatement or discontinuance: if any person taken in execution be delivered by privilege of either house, so soon as such privilege ceaseth, he shall return himself a prisoner in execution, or be liable to an escape. V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17. Under this latter provision it happened, that the house of delegates directed their serjeant at arms to demand one of their members, then in the custody of the sheriff of Henrico, upon an execution, (without the member's suing out a writ of privilege, as might possibly have been thought necessary.) This order was founded upon the return of the sheriff of the county for which the member was chosen, certifying his election, and a letter from the member himself to the house, acquainting him with his confinement, Oct. Sess. 1793, ut audivi.

The only way by which courts of justice could antiently take cognizance of privilege of parliament, was by writ of privilege,35 in the nature of a supersedeas, to deliver the party out of custody when arrested in a civil suit.u For when a letter was written by the speaker to the judges, to stay proceedings against a privileged person, they rejected it as contrary to their oath of office.v But since the statute 12 W. III. c. 3, which enacts that no privileged person shall be subject to arrest or imprisonment, it hath been held that such arrest is irregular ab initio, and that the party may be discharged upon motion.w It is to be observed, that there is no precedent of any such writ of privilege, but only in civil suits, and that the statute of 1 Jac. I. c. 13, and that of king William (which remedy some inconveniences arising from privilege of parliament) speak only of civil actions. And, therefore, the claim of privilege hath been usually guarded with an exception as to the case of indictable crimes;x or as it hath been frequently expressed, of treason, felony, and breach (or surety) of the peace.y Whereby it seems to have been understood that no privilege was allowable to the members, their families, or servants, in any crime whatsoever; for all crimes are treated by the law as being contra pacim domini regis. And instances have not been wanting, wherein privileged persons have been convicted of misdemesnors, and committed, or prosecuted to outlawry, even in the middle of a session;z which proceeding has afterwards received the sanction and approbation of parliament.a To which may be added, that, a few years ago, the case of writing and publishing seditious libels was resolved by both housesb not to be intitled to privilege;36

u Dyer 59. 4 Pryn. Brev. Parl. 757. v Latch. 48, Noy. 83.

w Stra. 989. x Com. Journ. 17 Aug. 1641.

y 4 Inst. 25. Com. Journ. 20 May, 1675.

z Mich. 16 Edw. IV. in Scacch. Lord Raym. 1461.

a Com. Journ. 16 May, 1726

b Com. Journ. 24 Nov. Lord's Journ, 29 Nov. 1763.

35. See the preceding note.

36. How far the writing and publishing such a libel in America, could be considered as operating to deprive a member of his privilege, is a question which I believe has not yet occurred.

and that the reasons, upon which that case proceeded,c extended equally to every indictable offence. So that the chief, if not the only, privilege of parliament, in such cases, seems to be the right of receiving immediate information of the imprisonment or detention of any member, with the reason for which he is detained:

a practice that is daily used upon the slightest military accusations, preparatory to a trial by a court martial;d and which is recognized by the several temporary statutes for suspending the habeas corpus act:e whereby it is provided, that no member of either house shall be detained, till the matter of which he stands suspected, be first communicated to the house of which he is a member, and the consent of the said house obtained for his commitment or detaining. But yet the usage has uniformly been, ever since the revolution, that the communication has been subsequent to the arrest.

These are the general heads of the laws and customs relating to parliament, considered as one aggregate body. We will next proceed to

IV. The laws and customs relating to the house of lords in particular.37 These, if we exclude their judicial capacity, which will be more properly treated of in the third and fourth books of these commentaries, will take up but little of our time.

One very antient privilege is that declared by the charter of the forest,f confirmed in parliament 9 Hen. III; viz. that every lord spiritual or temporal summoned to parliament, and passing through the king's forests, may, both in going and returning, kill one or two of the king's deer without warrant; in view of the forester if he be present, or on blowing a horn if he be absent:

that he may not seem to take the king's venison by stealth.

c Lord's Protest. ibid. d Com. Journ. 20 Apr. 1762. e Particularly 17 Geo. II. c. 6 f c 11.

37. In the United States the privileges of the members of both houses of congress, are precisely the same. It is the same also in the state legislature.

In the next place they have a right to be attended, and constantly are, by the judges of the court of king's bench and com

mon pleas, and such of the barons of the exchequer as are of the

degree of the coif, or have been made serjeants at law; as likewise by the king's learned counsel, being serjeants, and by the masters of the court of chancery; for their advice in point of law, and for the greater dignity of their proceedings. The secretaries of state, with the attorney and solicitor general, were also used to attend the house of peers, and have to this day (together with the judges, &c.) their regular writs of summons issued out at the beginning of every parliament,g ad tractandum et consilium impendendum, though not ad consentiendum; but, whenever of late years they have been members of the house of commons,h their attendance here hath fallen into disuse.

Another privilege is, that every peer, by licence obtained from the king, may make another lord of parliament his proxy, to vote for him in his absence.i A privilege, which a member of the other house can by no means have, as he is himself but a proxy for a multitude of other people.k

Each peer has also a right, by leave of the house, when a vote passes contrary to his sentiments, to enter his dissent on the journals of the house, with the reasons for such dissent; which is usually stiled his protest.38

All bills likewise, that may in their consequences any way affect the rights of the peerage, are, by the custom of parliament, to have their first rise and beginning in the house of peers, and to suffer no changes or amendments in the house of commons.

There is also one statute peculiarly relative to the house of lords; 6 Ann. c. 23, which regulates the election of the sixteen

g Stat. 31 Hen. VIII c. 10. Smith's Commonw. b. 2. L. 3. Moor. 551. 4 Inst. 4. Hale of Parl. 140.

h See Com. Journ. 11 Apr. 1614. 8 Feb. 1620. 10 Feb 1625 4 Inst. 48. i Seld. baronage, p. 1. c. 1. k 4 Inst. 12.

38. The yeas and nays of the members of either house of congress, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 5. This, in some respects, answers the purpose of a protest.

representative peers of North Britain, in consequence of the twenty-second and twenty-third articles of the union: and for that purpose prescribes the oaths, &c. to be taken by the electors; directs the mode of balloting; prohibits the peers electing from being attended in an unusual manner; and expressly provides, that no other matter shall be treated of in that assembly, save only the election, on pain of incurring a praemunire.

V. The peculiar laws and customs of the house of commons relate principally to the raising of taxes, and the elections of members to serve in parliament.

First, with regard to taxes: it is the antient indisputable privilege and right of the house of commons, that all grants of subsidies or parliamentary aids do begin in their house,39 and are first bestowed by them;l although their grants are not effectual to all intents and purposes, until they have the assent of the other two branches of the legislature. The general reason, given for this exclusive privilege of the house of commons, is, that the supplies are raised upon the body of the people, and therefore it is proper that they alone should have the right of taxing themselves (39). This reason would be unanswerable, if the commons taxed none but themselves: but it is notorious, that a very large share of property is in the possession of the house of lords; that this property is equally taxable and taxed, as the property of the commons; and therefore the com-

l 4 Inst. 29.

39. All bills for raising a revenue shall originate in the house of representatives, C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 7; but the senate may propose, or concur with amendments, as on other bills, Ib .... Money bills shall, in no instance, be altered by the senate of Virginia, but wholly approved or rejected. C. V. Art. 8.

(39.) In the committee of supply, any member of the committee, (though it is looked upon as the peculiar province of the chancellor of the exchequer) may propose such a scheme of taxation as he thinks proper. Post. p. 308. So that in fact, all taxes seem to originate with the crown and it's ministers.

mons not being the sole persons taxed, this cannot be the reason of their having the sole right of raising and modelling the supply. The true reason, arising from the spirit of our constitution, seems to be this. The lords being a permanent hereditary body, created at pleasure by the king, are supposed more liable to be influenced by the crown, and when once influenced to continue so, than the commons, who are a temporary elective body, freely nominated by the people. It would, therefore, be extremely dangerous, to give the lords any power of framing new taxes for the subject; it is sufficient that they have a power of rejecting it, if they think the commons too lavish or improvident in their grants. But so reasonably jealous are the commons of this valuable privilege, that herein they will not suffer the other house to exert any power but that of rejecting; they will not permit the least alteration or amendment to be made by the lords to the mode of taxing the people by a money bill;40 under which appellation are included all bills, by which money is directed to be raised upon the subject, for any purpose or in any shape whatsoever; either for the exigencies of government, and collected from the kingdom in general, as the land tax; or for private benefit, and collected in any particular district, as by turnpikes, parish rates, and the like. Yet sir Matthew Halem mentions one case, founded on the practice of parliament in the reign of Henry VI,n wherein he thinks the lords may alter a money bill: and that is, if the commons grant a tax, as that of tonnage and poundage, for four years; and the lords alter it to a less time, as for two years; here, he says, the bill need not be sent back to the commons for their concurrence, but may receive the royal assent without farther ceremony; for the alteration of the lords is consistent with the grant of the commons. But such an experiment will hardly be repeated by the lords, under the present improved idea of the privilege of the house of commons, and, in any case where a money bill is remanded to the com-

m On parliaments, 65, 66.

n Year book, 33 Hen. VI. 17. But see the answer to this case by sir Heneage Finch. Com. Journ. 22 Apr. 1671.

40. See the last note in the preceding page.

mons, all amendments in the mode of taxation are sure to be rejected.

Next, with regard to the elections of knights, citizens, and burgesses;41 we may observe, that herein consists the exercise of the democratical part of our constitution: for in a democracy there can be no exercise of sovereignty but by suffrage, which is the declaration of the people's will. In all democracies, therefore, it is of the utmost importance to regulate by whom, and in what manner, the suffrages are to be given. And the Athenians were so justly jealous of this prerogative, that a stranger, who interfered in the assemblies of the people, was punished by their laws with death: because such a man was esteemed guilty of high treason, by usurping those rights of sovereignty, to which he had no title. In England, where the people do not debate in a collective body but by representation, the exercise of this sovereignty consists in the choice of representatives. The laws have therefore very strictly guarded against usurpation or abuse of this power, by many salutary provisions; which may be reduced to these three points, 1. The qualifications of the electors. 2. The qualifications of the elected. 3. The proceedings at elections.

1. As to the qualifications of the electors. The true reason of requiring any qualification, with regard to property, in voters, is to exclude such persons as are in so mean a situation that they are esteemed to have no will of their own.42 If these persons

41. As to the elections of representatives to congress. See C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 2. L. V. 1792. Sessions acts, c. 1. 1801, c. 24. And for elections to the state legislature, see C. V. Art. 7. L. V. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17, 61. Sess. acts 1797, c. 15. 1798, c. 14. Appendix to Vol. I. Part I. Notes C. and D.

42. The electors of representatives to congress, in each state, shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. C. U. S. Art. I. All men having sufficient evidence of permanent common interest with, and attachment to the community, have the right of suffrage. Bill of Rights, Art. 6. This, in Virginia, as ascertained by law, consists

had votes, they would be tempted to dispose of them under some undue influence or other. This would give a great, an artful, or a wealthy man, a larger share in elections than is consistent with general liberty. If it were probable that every man would give his vote freely and without influence of any kind, then, upon the true theory and genuine principles of liberty, every member of the community, however poor, should have a vote in electing those delegates, to whose charge is committed the disposal of his property, his liberty, and his life. But, since that can hardly be expected in persons of indigent fortunes, or such as are under the immediate dominion of others, all popular states have been obliged to establish certain qualifications; whereby some, who are suspected to have no will of their own, are excluded from voting, in order to set other individuals, whose wills may be supposed independent, more thoroughly upon a level with each other.

And this constitution of suffrages is framed upon a wiser principle, with us, than either of the methods of voting, by centuries or by tribes, among the Romans. In the method by centuries, instituted by Servius Tullius, it was principally property, and not numbers, that turned the scale: in the method by tribes, gradually introduced by the tribunes of the people, numbers only were regarded, and property entirely overlooked. Hence the laws passed by the former method, had usually too great a tendency to aggrandize the patricians or rich nobles; and those by the latter had too much of a levelling principle. Our constitution steers between the two extremes. Only such are entirely excluded, as can have no will of their own: there is hardly a free agent to be found who is not entitled to a vote in some place or other in the kingdom. Nor is comparative wealth, or property, entirely disregarded in elections; for though the richest man has only one vote at one place, yet, if his property be at all diffused,

in a freehold estate, at least in twenty-five acres of land, with a house thereon equal to twelve feet square, or fifty acres of unimproved land, or a lot, or part of a lot of land in a city or town established by act of assembly, with a house thereon of the like superficial content. L. V. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17.

he has probably a right to vote at more places than one, and therefore has many representatives.43 This is the spirit of our constitution: not that I assert it is in fact quite so perfectn as I have here endeavoured to describe it; for, if any alteration might be wished or suggested in the present frame of parliaments, it should be in favour of a more complete representation of the people. (43)

n The candid and intelligent reader will apply this observation to many other parts of the work before him, wherein the constitution of our laws and government are represented as nearly approaching to perfection; without descending to the invidious task of pointing out such deviations and corruptions, as length of time and a loose state of national morals have too great a tendency to produce. The incurvations of practice are then the most notorious when compared with the rectitude of the rule; and to elucidate the clearness of the spring, conveys the strongest satire on those who have polluted or disturbed it.

43. This was partly the case also in Virginia, so far as relates to members of the general assembly; these being chosen in the different counties on their respective court days, which are generally different, a man might have voted in several different counties if disposed to do so. But the elections for members to congress being held on the same day, in every part of the state, it can rarely happen that any man can vote for more than one representative to congress. V. L. 1785, c. 55. 1792, c. 1. Sessions acts.

But the law is now altered in Virginia, all elections for members to the general assembly being now held on the same day, to wit, on the fourth Wednesday in April, yearly, which is also the day on which representatives to congress are to be chosen, in those years, wherein elections are by the constitution and laws of the United States appointed to be held. See L. V. 1798, c. 14.

(43) The following strictures upon this passage, occur in Mr. Burgh's Political Disquisitions, Vol. I. p. 80, 81. "If judge Blackstone did, at the time he wrote the 172d page of his Commentaries, recollect the miserable state of representation in our times, it is inconceivable how he could bring himself to write as he has done." "Only such are entirely excluded from voting for members," says he, "as can have no will of their own" (meaning poor and dependent people without property.) "There is hardly a free agent to be found, but what is entitled to a vote in some place or other in the kingdom." Did the learned judge consider what he himself has observed, that the borough members are four times as numerous as the county members; that a few thousands of electors send in the majo-

But to return to our qualifications; and first those of electors for knights of the shire. 1. By statute 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, and 10 Hen. VI. c. 2, (amended by 14 Geo. III. c. 58,) the blights of the shire shall be chosen of people, whereof every man shall have freehold to the value of forty shillings by the year within the county; which (by subsequent statutes) is to be clear of all charges and deductions, except parliamentary and parochial taxes. The knights of shires are the representatives of the landholders, or landed interest of the kingdom: their electors must therefore have estates in lands or tenements, within the county

rity of the house; that in many places a handful of beggars sends in as many members as the great and rich county of York or city of Bristol? Did the learned judge consider these shocking absurdities and monstrous disproportions, or did he consider the alarming influence the court has in parliament, when he wrote what follows, viz. "If any alteration might be wished or suggested in the present frame of parliaments, it should be in favour of a more complete representation of the people." What! are we to be put off with a cold "If," in a case where our country lies bleeding to death? "If any alteration might be wished" .... Let us go on then, and say, "If" the deliverance of ourselves and posterity might be wished; "If" any alteration of what must bring us to ruin might be wished; any alteration from a mockery rather than the reality of representation; any alteration from 300 placemen and pensioners sitting in the house of commons; any alteration from a corrupt court's commanding the majority of the elections into the house, and the majority of the votes, when in it; any alteration from the parliament's becoming a mere outwork of the court; if it is at last to be doubted whether the saving of our country is to be wished, what is to become of us? Had a hackneyed court hireling written in this manner, it had been no matter of wonder; but if the most intelligent men in the nation are to endeavour to persuade the people that there is hardly room for a wish; that there is scarce any thing capable of alteration for the better, (the judge's four volumes are a continued panegyric) at the very time when there is hardly any thing in the condition, it ought to be in; at the time when we have upon us every symptom of a declining stale; when we are sinking in a bottomless gulph of debt and corruption; the spirit of the constitution gone, the foundations of public security shaken, and the whole fabric ready to come down in ruin upon our heads, if they, who ought to be the watchmen of the public weal, are thus to damp all proposals for redress of grievances .... Quo res summa loco? In what condition is this once free and enlightened people likely soon to be?

represented: these estates must be freehold, that is, for term of life at least;44 because beneficial leases for long terms of years were not in use at the making of these statutes, and copyholders were then little better than villeins, absolutely dependent upon their lords: this freehold must be of forty shillings annual value;

because that sum would then, with proper industry, furnish all the necessaries of life, and render the freeholder, if he pleased, an independent man. For bishop Fleetwood, in his chronicon preciosum, written at the beginning of the present century, has fully proved forty shillings, in the reign of Henry VI, to have been equal to twelve pounds per annum in the reign of queen Anne; and, as the value of money is very considerably lowered since the bishop wrote, I think we may fairly conclude, from this and other circumstances, that what was equivalent to twelve pounds in his days, is equivalent to twenty at present. The other less important qualifications of the electors for counties in England and Wales, may be collected from the statutes cited in the margin;o which direct, 2. That no person under twenty-one years of age shall be capable of voting for any member.45 This extends to all sorts of members, as well for boroughs as counties;

as does also the next, viz. 3. That no person convicted of perjury, or subornation of perjury, shall be capable of voting in any, election. 4. That no person shall vote in right of any freehold, granted to him fraudulently to qualify him to vote.46 Fraudulent grants are such as contain an agreement to reconvey, or to defeat the estate granted; which agreements are made void, and the estate is absolutely vested in the person to whom it is so granted. And, to guard the better against such frauds, it is farther provided, 5. That every voter shall have been in the actual possession, or receipt of the profits, of his freehold to his own use for twelve calendar months before; except it came to him by

o 7 and 8 W. III. c. 25. 10 Ann. c. 23. 31 Geo. II. c. 14. 3 Geo. III. c. 24. 2 Geo. II. c. 21. 18 Geo. II. c. 18.

44. V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17, accordant.

45. V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17, accordant.

46. V. L. 1736, c. 1. Edi. 1769, accordant.

descent, marriage, marriage-settlement, will,47 or promotion to a benefice or office. 6. That no person shall vote in respect of an annuity or rent-charge, unless registered with the clerk of the peace twelve calendar months before. 7. That in mortgaged or trust estates, the person in possession, under the above-mentioned restrictions, shall have the vote. 8. That only one person shall be admitted to vote for any one house or tenement, to prevent the splitting of freeholds.48 9. That no estate shall qualify a voter, unless the estate has been assessed to some land tax aid, at least twelve months before the election: 10. That no tenant by copy of court roll shall be permitted to vote as a freeholder. Thus much for the electors in counties.

As for the electors of citizens and burgesses, these are supposed to be the mercantile part or trading interest of this kingdom. But as trade is of a fluctuating nature, and seldom long fixed in a place, it was formerly left to the crown to summon, pro re nata, the most flourishing towns to send representatives to parliament. So that as towns increased in trade, and grew populous, they were admitted to a share in the legislature. But the misforture is, that the deserted boroughs continued to be summoned,49 as well as those to whom their trade and inhabitants were transferred; except a few which petitioned to be eased of the expence, then usual, of maintaining their members:

47. V. L. 1736, c. I, accordant. But the act of 1785, c. 55, reduces the time to six months. Edi. 1794, c. 17.

48. In right of land holden by parceners, &c. but one vote shall be given, unless the quantity of land, in case of partition, be sufficient to entitle every one of them to vote separately. The laws of Virginia are silent, in respect to the other provisions noticed by the Commentator. See V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17.

49. To what gross absurdities, says Mr. Locke, the following of custom, when reason has left it, may lead, we may be satisfied, when we see the bare name of a town, of which there remains not so much as the ruins, where scarce so much housing as a sheep-cot, or more inhabitants than a shepherd, are to be found, send as many representatives to the grand assembly of law-makers, as a whole county, numerous in people, and powerful in riches. On Gov. c. 13.

four shillings a day being allowed for a knight of the shire, and two shillings for a citizen or burgess: which was the rate of wages established in the reign of Edward III.p Hence the members for boroughs now bear above a quadruple proportion to those for counties,50 and the number of parliament men is increased since Fortescue's time, in the reign of Henry the sixth, from 300 to upwards of 500, exclusive of those for Scotland. The universities were in general not empowered to send burgesses to parliament; though once, in 28 Edw. I, when a parliament was summoned to consider of the king's right to Scotland, there were issued writs, which required the university of Oxford to send up four or five, and that of Cambridge two or three, of their most discreet and learned lawyers for that purpose.q But it was king James the first, who indulged them with the permanent privilege to send constantly two of their own body; to serve for those students who, though useful numbers of the community, were neither concerned in the landed nor the trading interest; and to protect in the legislature the rights of the republic of letters. The right of election in boroughs is various, depending entirely on the several charters, customs, and constitutions of the respective places, which has occasioned infinite disputes; though now by statute 2 Geo, II. c. 24, the right of voting for the future shall be allowed according to the last determination of the house of commons concerning it. And by statute 3 Geo. III. c. 15, no freeman of any city or borough (other than such as claim by birth, marriage, or servitude) shall be entitled to vote therein, unless he hath been admitted to his freedom twelve calendar months before.51

p 4 Inst. 16. q Prynne parl. writs, I. 342.

50. Mr. Burgh gives a list of twenty-eight boroughs, in which the majority of the electors comes below twenty, which send fifty six members to parliament. The boroughs of Newton and Old Sarum, have each one elector and two representatives: and the borough of Marlborough two of each. According to him, 254 members of the British parliament are actually elected by 5, 723 votes: the whole number of members being 558, Political Disquisitions, 1 vol. p. 45, &c.

51. The right of suffrage in Williamsburg, Norfolk, and Richmond stands nearly upon the same footing. L. V. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17. 1788, c. 63. Sess. Acts.

2. Next, as to the qualifications of persons to be elected members of the house of commons. Some of these depend upon the law and custom of parliaments, declared by the house of commons;r others upon certain statutes. And from these, it appears, 1. That they must not be aliens born,5 or minors. t 52 2. That they must not be any of the twelve judges, u 53 because they sit in the lords' house; nor of the clergy,w for they sit in the convocation; nor persons attainted of treason or felony,x for they are unfit to sit any where. 3. That sheriffs of counties, and mayors and bailiffs of boroughs, are not eligible in their respective jurisdictions, as being returning officers;y but that sheriffs of one county are eligible to be knights of another.z 54 4. That, in strictness, all members ought to have been inhabitants of the places for which they are chosen:2 55 but this, having

r 4 Inst. 47, 48. s See p. 162. t Ibid. u Com. Journ. 9 Nov. 1605.

w Com. Journ. 13 Oct. 1553. 8 Feb. 1620. 17 Jan. 1661. x Com. Journ. 21 Jan. 1580. 4 Inst. 47.

y Bro Abr. t. Parliament. 7. Com. Journ. 25 June, 1604. 14 Apr. 1614. 22 Mar. 1620, 2, 4. 15 June. 17 Nov. 1685. Hal. of parl. 114. z 4 Inst. 48. Whitlocke of Parliament, ch. 99, 100, 101. a Stat. 1 Hen. V. c. 1. 23 Hen VI. c. 15.

52. See page 162, note 26, 28. C. U. S. Article 1. § 2, 3. C. V. Article 6. L. V. 1785, c. 55. 1786, c. 10. Edi. 1794, c. 17, 110.

53. No person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. C. U. S. Article 1. §. 6. The same provision as to the state legislature. C. V. Article 3, 14. Members of congress are ineligible to, and incapable of holding any legislative, executive, or judicial office, under the commonwealth of Virginia. L. V. 1788. c. 38. Sess. Acts, Edi. 1794, c. 36. And, also, all persons receiving any emolument from the United States. Sess. Acts, 1798, ch. 15.

54. Sheriffs are altogether excluded from the Legislature, C. V. An. 14. So, also, are all ministers of the gospel of every denomination, Ibid.

55. C. V. Art. 5. accordant, as to members of the state legislature, V. L. 1788, c. 2. 1792, c. 1, and 1801, c. 24, require the same thing as to representatives in congress. But the constitution of the U. S. does not.

been long disregarded, was at length entirely repealed by statute 14 Geo. III. c. 58. 5. That no persons concerned in the management of any duties or taxes created since 1692, except the commissioners of the treasury,b nor any of the officers following,c (viz. commissioners of prizes, transports, sick and wounded, wine licences, navy, and victualling; secretaries or receivers of prizes; comptrollers of the army accounts; agents for regiments; governors of plantations and their deputies; officers of Minorca or Gibraltar; officers of the excise and customs;

clerks or deputies in the several offices of the treasury, exchequer, navy, victualling, admiralty, pay of the army or navy, secretaries of state, salt, stamps, appeals, wine licences, hackney coaches, hawkers and pedlars) nor any persons that hold any new office under the crown created since 1705,d are capable of being elected or sitting as members. 6. That no person having a pension under the crown during pleasure, or for any term of years, is capable of being elected or sitting e 56 7. That if any member accepts an office under the crown, except an officer in the army or navy accepting a new commission, his seat is void; but such member is capable of being re-elected. f 57 8. That all knights of the shire shall be actual knights, or such notable esquires and gentlemen as have estates sufficient to be knights, and by no means of the degree of yeomen.g This is reduced to a still

b Stat. 5 and 6 W. and M. c. 7.

c Stat. 11. and 12 W. III. c. 2. 12 and 13 W. III. c. 10. 6 Ann. c. 7. 15 Geo. II. c. 22.

d Stat. 6 Ann. c. 7. e Stat. 6 Ann. c. 7. 1 Geo. c. 66. f Stat. 6 Ann c. 7. g Stat. 23 Hen. VI. c. 15.

56. But what if the pension be for life, or hereditary? The pensioner in this case is not ineligible. "It was reckoned, there were 232 members of the first parliament of George I. who had places, pensions, or titles, besides a great many brothers, and heirs apparent of the nobility, or persons otherwise likely to be under undue influence; the number of which was not below 50, which added to the 232, makes 282. A frightful majority on the side of the court. And there is no reason to suppose the number fewer, now, than it was then." Burgh's Political Disquisitions. Vol. 2. p. 44.

57. The person so accepting is, ineligible during his continuance in office, since he cannot be a member, C. U. S. Article, 1, §. 6. C. V. Art. 3, 14.

greater certainty, by ordaining, 9. That every knight of a shire shall have a clear estate of freehold or copyhold to the value of six hundred pounds per annum, and every citizen and burgess to the value of three hundred pounds: except the eldest sons of peers, and of persons qualified to be knights of shires, and except the members for the two universities:h which somewhat balances the ascendant which the boroughs have gained over the counties, by obliging the trading interest to make choice of landed men: and of this qualification the member must make oath, and give in the particulars in writing, at the time of his taking his seat.i * But, subject to these standing restrictions and disqualifications, every subject of the realm is eligible of common right: though there are instances, wherein persons in particular circumstances have forfeited that common right, and have been declared ineligible for that parliament by a vote of the house of commons,i or for ever by an act of the legislature.k But it was an unconstitutional prohibition, which was grounded

h Stat. 9 Ann. c. 5. j See page 163.

i Stat. 33 Geo. II. c. 20. k Stat. 7 Geo. I. c. 28.

* By statute 22 Geo. III. c. 45, every person who shall directly or indirectly, by himself or by any other to his use, hold any contract made with the commissioners of the treasury, navy, or victualling-office, or the master-general or board of ordnance, or any other person, for, or on account of the public service; or shall, in pursuance of any such contract, furnish any money to be remitted abroad, or any wares or merchandize to be used in the service of the public, shall be incapable of being elected or sitting or voting in the house of commons, during the time that he shall hold such contract. (57)

(57). "And if any person disqualified by such contract shall sit in the house he shall forfeit 500l. for every day; and if any person who engages in a contract with government, admits any member of parliament to a share of it, he shall forfeit 500l. to the prosecutor." .... Christian.

This act is in perfect unison with the principles of the federal constitution, and well deserves to be adopted by congress, as a pattern.

on an ordinance of the house of lords,l and inserted in the king's writs, for the parliament holden at Coventry, 6 Hen IV, that no apprentice or other man of the law should be elected a knight of the shire therein:m in return for which, our law books and historiansn have branded this parliament with the name of parliamentum indoctum, or the lack-learning parliament; and Sir Edward Coke, observes, with some spleen,o that there was never a good law made thereat.

3. The third point, regarding elections, is the method of proceeding therein.58 This is also regulated by the law of parliament, and the several statutes referred to in the margin;p

all which I shall blend together, and extract out of them a summary account of the method of proceeding to elections.

As soon as the parliament is summoned, the lord chancellor (or if a vacancy happens during the sitting of parliament,59 the speaker, by order of the house; and without such order, if a vacancy happens by death, or the member's becoming a peer, in the time of a recess for upwards of twenty days) sends his

1 4 Inst. 10, 48. Pryn. Plea for Lords, 379. 2 Whitelocke, 359, 368.

m Pryn. on 4 Inst. 13. n Walsingh. A.. D. 1405.

o 4 Inst. 48.

p 7 Hen. IV. c. 15. 8 Hen. VI. c. 7. 23 Hen. VI. c. 14. 1 W. and M. st. 1. c. 2. 2 W. and M. st. 1 c. 7. 5 and 6 W. and M. c. 20. 7 W. III. c. 4. 7 and 8 W. III. c. 7. and c. 25. 10 and 11 W. III. c. 7.12 and 13 W. III c. 10. 6 Ann. c. 23.9 Ann. c. 5.10 Ann. c. 19. and c. 33.2 Geo. II. c. 24. 8 Geo. II. c. 30. 18 Geo. II. c. 18. 19 Geo. II. c. 28. 10 Geo. III. c. 16. 11. Geo. III. c. 42 14 Geo. III. c. 15. 15 Geo. III. c. 36. 28 Geo. III. c. 52.

58. For the method of proceeding at all elections in Virginia, see V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17. Sessions acts, 1788, c. 2 1792. c. 1. 1801, c. 24.

59. When vacancies happen in the representation in congress from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 2. If a vacancy happen in the general assembly of Virginia, the speaker shall issue the writ: but not without the special order of the house, if the vacancy be occasioned by acceptance of an office. V. L. 1785. c. 55. Edi. 1794. c. 17.

warrant to the clerk of the crown in chancery; who thereupon issues out writs to the sheriff of every county, for the election of all the members to serve for that county, and every city and borough therein. Within three days after the receipt of this writ, the sheriff is to send his precept, under his seal, to the proper returning officers of the cities and boroughs, commanding them to elect their members: and the said returning officers are to proceed to election within eight days from the receipt of the precept, giving four days notice of the same;q and to return the persons chosen, together with the precept to the sheriff.

But elections of knights of the shire must be proceeded to by the sheriffs themselves in person,60 at the next county court that shall happen after the delivery of the writ. The county court is a court held every month or oftener by the sheriff, intended to try little causes not exceeding the value of forty shillings, in what part of the county he pleases to appoint for that purpose:

but for the election of knights of the shire it must be held at the most usual place. If the county court falls upon the day of delivering the writ, or within six days after, the sheriff may adjourn the court and election to some other convenient time, not longer than sixteen days, nor shorter than ten; but he cannot alter the place, without the consent of all the candidates:

q In the borough of New-Shoreham in Sussex, wherein certain freeholders of the county are entitled to vote by statute 11 Geo. III. c. 55, the election must be within twelve days, with eight days notice of the same.

60. In Virginia, elections may be conducted by the under sheriff of the county, in the absence of the high sheriff. V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c; 17. Sess. acts, 1792, c. 1. 1801, c. 24. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof:

But congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 4. V. L. 1798, c. 14, fix the fourth Wednesday in April, in every second year, as the time; and 1792, c. I, the county court

houses as the places, of chosing federal representatives. The mem

bers of the state legislatures are directed to be chosen at the county court-houses on the same day annually. V, L. 1797, c. 15, and 1798, c. 14.

and, in all such cases, ten days public notice must be given of the time and place of the election.

And, as it is essential to the very being of parliament, that elections should be absolutely free, therefore, all undue influences upon the electors are illegal, and strongly prohibited. For Mr. Locke ranks it among those branches of trust in the executive magistrate, which, according to his notions, amount to a dissolution of the government, "if he employs the force, treasure, and officers of the society to corrupt the representatives, or openly to preingage the electors, and prescribe what manner of persons shall be chosen. For thus to regulate candidates and electors, and new model the ways of election, what is it, says he, but to cut up the government by the roots, and and poison the very fountain of public security?" As soon, therefore, as the time and place of election, either in counties or boroughs, are fixed, all soldiers quartered in the place, are to remove, at least one day before the election, to the distance of two miles or more; and not to return till one day after the poll is ended.61 Riots, likewise, have been frequently determined to make an election void. By vote also of the house of commons, to whom alone belongs the power of determining contested elections, no lord of parliament, or lord lieutenant of a county, hath any right to interfere in the election of commoners; and, by statute, the lord warden of the cinque ports shall not recommend any members there. If any officer of the excise, customs, stamps, or certain other branches of the revenue, presume to intermeddle in elections, by persuading any voter or dissuading him, he forfeits 100l, and is disabled to hold any office.62

61. A similar regulation in the elections of representatives to congress, seems highly proper, and necessary. See the Journals of Congress, March, 1792.

62. If any sheriff shall, directly, or indirectly, so interfere in the elections of senators or delegates, as to shew partiality for any candidates, he shall forfeit and pay the sum of 200l. and moreover be deprived of his right of voting for two years. V. L. 1784, c. 20. Sessions acts. But if the number of votes for several candidates be equal, he may declare which he will elect, and return him accordingly. V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17.

Thus, are the electors of one branch of the legislature, secured from any undue influence from either of the other two, and from all external violence and compulsion. But the greatest danger is that in which themselves co-operate, by the infamous practice of bribery and corruption. To prevent which, it is enacted, that no candidate shall, after the date (usually called the teste) of the writs, or after the vacancy,63 give any money or entertainment to his electors, or promise to give any, either to particular persons, or to the place in general, in order to his being elected; on pain of being incapable to serve for that place in parliament. And if any money, gift, office, employment, or reward be given, or promised to be given to any voter, at any time, in order to influence him to give or withhold his vote, as well he that takes, as he that offers such bribe, forfeits 500l, and is for ever disabled from voting and holding any office in any corporation; unless, before conviction, he will discover some other offender of the same kind, and then he is indemnified for his own offence.s The first instance that occurs, of election bribery, was so early as 13 Eliz. when one Thomas Longe (being a simple man, and of small capacity to serve in parliament) acknowleged that he had given the returning officer and others of the borough for which he was chosen, four pounds to be returned member, and was for that premium elected. But, for this offence the borough was amerced, the member was removed, and the officer fined and imprisoned.t But, as this practice hath since taken much deeper and more universal root, it hath occasioned the making of these wholesome statutes, to complete the efficacy of which, there is nothing wanting but resolution and integrity, to put them in strict execution.

s In like manner the Julian law de ambitu inflicted fines and infamy upon all who were guilty of corruption at elections; but, if the person guilty convicted another offender, he was restored to his credit again. Ff. 48, 14, 1.

t 4 Inst. 23. Hale of parl. 112. Com. Journ. 10 and 11 May, 1571.

63. Our laws prohibit bribery and corruption at any time. V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17. Sess. Acts of 1788, c, 2. 1792, c. 1. 1801, c. 24. Sess. Acts 1798, c. 10.

Undue influence, being thus (I wish the depravity of mankind would permit me to say, effectually) guarded against, the election is to be proceeded to on the day appointed; the sheriff or other returning officer first taking an oath against bribery, and for the due execution of his office. The candidates, likewise, if required, must swear to their qualification; and the electors in counties, to theirs;64 and the electors both in counties and boroughs are also compellable to take the oath of abjuration and that against bribery and corruption. And it might not be amiss, if the members elected, were bound to take the latter oath, as well as the former; which in all probability would be much more effectual, than administering it only to the electors.65

The election being closed, the returning officer in boroughs returns his precept to the sheriff, with the persons elected by the majority:66 and the sheriff returns the whole, together with the writ for the county, and the knights elected thereupon, to the clerk of the crown in chancery; before the day of meeting, if it be a new parliament, or within fourteen days after the election, if it he an occasional vacancy; and this, under penalty of 500l. If the sheriff does not return such knights, only, as are duly elected, he forfeits, by the old statutes of Henry VI, 100l; and the returning officer in boroughs for a like false return, 40l; and they are besides liable to an action, in which double damages shall be recovered, by the later statutes of king William: and any person bribing the returning officer, shall also forfeit, 300l. But the members returned by him, are the sitting members, until the house of commons, upon petition, shall adjudge the return, to be false and illegal. The form and manner of proceeding upon such petition are now regulated by statute 10 Geo. III. c. 16, (amend-

64. V. L. 1785, c. 55. Edi. 1794, c. 17. accordant.

65. It is most devoutly to be wished that a similar institution could be found in our laws.

66. The manner of making the returns in Virginia is prescribed at length, in the act of 1785, c. 55, and the penalty on making a false return, is by the same act fixed at 100l. Edi. 1794, c. 17. See also, as to the returns of representatives to congress, V. L. 1788, c. 2. 1792, c. 1. 1801, c. 24, Sessions Acts.

ed by 11 Geo. III. c. 42, and made perpetual by 14 Geo. III. c. 15,) which directs the method of chusing by lot a select committee of fifteen members, who are sworn well and truly to try the same, and a true judgment to give according to the evidence.67 And this abstract of the proceedings at elections of knights, citizens, and burgesses, concludes our inquiries into the laws and customs more peculiarly relative to the house of commons.

VI. I proceed now, sixthly, to the method of making laws;

which is much the same in both houses: and I shall touch it very briefly, beginning in the house of commons. But first, I must premise, that for dispatch of business each house of parliament has it's speaker.68 The speaker of the house of lords, whose office it is to preside there, and manage the formality of business, is the lord chancellor, or keeper of the king's great seal, or any other appointed by the king's commission: and, if none be so appointed, the house of lords (it is said) may elect. The speaker of the house of commons is chosen by the house; but must be approved by the king. And herein the usage of the two houses differs, that the speaker of the house of commons cannot give his opinion or argue any question in the house; but the speaker of the house of lords, if a lord of parliament, may. In each house the act of the majority binds the whole; and this majority is declared by votes openly and publicly given: not as at Venice, and many other senatorial assemblies, privately or by ballot. This latter method may be serviceable, to prevent intrigues and un-

67. See the method of proceeding in this case. V. L. 1785, c. 55. 1788, c. 52. Edi. 1794, c. 17, 39. Acts of 1797, c. 15. and L. U. 8. 5 Cong. c. 25. See also V. L. 1798, c. 10.

68. The house of representatives in congress shall choose their speaker and other officers. But the vice-president of the United Stales is by his office president of the senate .... but in his absence the senate may choose a president pro tempore. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 2. 3. In the general assembly of Virginia, each house chooses it's own speaker. C. V. Art. 7. The manner of proceeding, both in congress, and in the state legislature, is in general conformable to the rules of the British parliament, as here mentioned by the commentator.

constitutional combinations: but is impossible to be practiced with us; at least in the house of commons, where every member's conduct is subject to the future censure of his constituents, and, therefore, should be openly submitted to their inspection.

To bring a bill into the house, if the relief sought by it is of a private nature, it is first necessary to prefer a petition; which must be presented by a member, and usually sets forth the grievance desired to be remedied. This petition (when founded on facts that may be in their nature disputed) is referred to a committee of members, who examine the matter alleged, and accordingly report it to the house; and then (or, otherwise, upon the mere petition) leave is given to bring in the bill. In public matters the bill is brought in upon motion made to the house, without any petition at all. Formerly, all bills were drawn in the form of petitions, which were entered upon the parliament rolls, with the king's answer thereunto subjoined; not in any settled form of words, but as the circumstances of the case required:t

and at the end of each parliament the judges drew them into the form of a statute, which was entered on the statute rolls. In the reign of Henry V, to prevent mistakes and abuses, the statutes were drawn up by the judges before the end of the parliament;

and, in the reign of Henry VI, bills in the form of acts, according to the modern custom, were first introduced.

The persons directed to bring in the bill, present it in a competent time to the house, drawn out on paper, with a multitude of blanks, or void spaces, where any thing occurs that is dubious, or necessary to be settled by the parliament itself; (such, especially, as the precise date of times, the nature and quantity of penalties, or of any sums of money to be raised), being indeed only the skeleton of the bill. In the house of lords, if the bill begins there, it is (when of a private nature) referred to two of the judges, to examine and report the state of the facts alleged, to see that all necessary parties consent, and to settle all points of technical propriety. This is read a first time, and at a convenient distance a second time; and after each reading, the speaker opens

t See, among numberless other instances, the articuli cleri, 9 Edw. II.

to the house the substance of the bill, and puts the question, whether it shall proceed any farther. The introduction of the bill may be originally opposed, as the bill itself may at either of the readings; and, if the opposition succeeds, the bill must be dropped for that session: as it must also, if opposed with success in any of the subsequent stages.

After the second reading, it is committed, that is, referred to a committee; which is either selected by the house in matters of small importance, or else, upon a bill of consequence, the house resolves itself into a committee of the whole house. A committee of the whole house is composed of every member;

and, to form it, the speaker quits the chair, (another member being appointed chairman) and may sit and debate as a private member. In these committees the bill is debated clause by clause, amendments made, the blanks filled up, and sometimes the bill entirely new modelled. After it has gone through the committee, the chairman reports it to the house with such amendments as the committee have made; and then the house reconsiders the whole bill again, and the question is repeatedly put upon every clause and amendment. When the house hath agreed or disagreed to the amendments of the committee, and sometimes added new amendments of it's own, the bill is then ordered to be engrossed, or written in a strong gross hand, on one or more long rolls (or presses) of parchment sewed together. When this. is finished, it is read a third time, and amendments are sometimes then made to it; and if a new clause be added, it is done by tacking a separate piece of parchment on the bill, which is called a ryder.u The speaker then again opens the contents; and, holding it up in his hands, puts the question, whether the bill shall pass. If this is agreed to, the title to it is then settled; which used to be a general one for all the acts passed in the session, till in the first year of Henry VIII, distinct titles were introduced for each chapter. After this, one of the members is directed to carry it to the lords, and desire their concurrence; who, attended by several more, carries it to the bar of the house of peers, and there delivers it to their speaker, who comes down from his woolsack to receive it.

n Noy. 84.

It there passes through the same forms as in the other house, (except engrossing, which is already done) and, if rejected, no more notice is taken, but it passes sub silentio, to prevent unbecoming altercations. But if it is agreed to, the lords send a message by two masters in chancery (or upon matters of high dignity or importance, by two of the judges) that they have agreed to the same: and the bill remains with the lords, if they have made no amendment to it. But if any amendments are made, such amendments are sent down with the bill to receive the concurrence of the commons. If the commons disagree to the amendments, a conference usually follows between members deputed from each house; who for the most part settle and adjust the difference: but, if both houses remain inflexible, the bill is dropped. If the commons agree to the amendments, the the bill is sent back to the lords by one of the members, with a message to acquaint them therewith. The same forms are observed, mutatis mutandis, when the bill begins in the house of lords. But when an act of grace or pardon is passed, it is first signed by his majesty, and then read once only in each of the houses, without any new engrossing or amendment.w And when both houses have done with any bill, it always is deposited in the house of peers, to wait the royal assent;69 except in the

w D'ewes journ. 20. 73 Com. journ. 17 June, 1747.

69. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives and the senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the president of the United States: if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journals and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house, respectively. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 7. The executive of the commonwealth has no negative on the proceedings of the general assembly, either absolute or qualified.

case of a bill of supply, which after receiving the concurrence of the lords is sent back to the house of commons.x

The royal assent may be given two ways: 1. In person;

when the king comes to the house of peers, in his crown and royal robes, and sending for the commons to the bar; the titles of all the bills that have passed both houses are read; and the king's answer is declared by the clerk of the parliament in Norman-French: a badge, it must be owned, (now the only one remaining) of conquest; and which one could wish to see fall into total oblivion, unless it be reserved as a solemn memento to remind us that our liberties are mortal, having once been destroyed by a foreign force. If the king consents to a public bill, the clerk usually declares, "le roy le veut, the king wills it so to be;" if to a private bill, "soit fait comme il est desirè, be it as it is desired." If the king refuses his assent, it is in the gentle language of "le roy s'avisera, the king will advise upon it." When a bill of supply is passed, it is carried up and presented to the king by the speaker of the house of commons;y and the royal assent is thus expressed, "le roy remercie ses loyal subjects, accepte lour benevolence, et aussi le veut, the king thanks his loyal subjects, accepts their benevolence, and wills it so to be." In case of an act of grace, which originally proceeds from the crown, and has the royal assent in the first stage of it, the clerk of the parliament thus pronounces the gratitude of the subject;

les prelats, seigneurs, et commons, en ce present parliament assemblees, au nom de touts vous autres subjects, remercient tres humblement votre majeste, et prient a Dieu vous donner en sante bone vie et longue; the prelates, lords, and commons, in this present parliament assembled, in the name of all your other sub-

x Com. journ. 24 July, 1660. y Rot. Parl. 9. Hen. IV. in Pryn. 4. Inst. 30, 31.

If any bill shall not be returned by the president of the U. States,

within ten days, Sundays excepted, after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be law, in like manner as if he had signed it,

unless the congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be law. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 7.

jects, most humbly thank your majesty and pray to God to grant you in health and wealth long to live."z 2. By the statute 33 Hen. VIII, c. 21, the king may give his assent by letters patent under his great seal, signed with his hand, and notified in his absence to both houses assembled together in the high house. And, when the bill has received the royal assent in either of these ways, it is then, and not before, a statute or act of parliament.

This statute or act is placed among the records of the kingdom;70 there needing no formal promulgation to give it the force of law, as was necessary by the civil law with regard to the emperor's edicts: because every man in England is, in judgment of law, party to the making of an act of parliament, being present thereat by his representatives. However, a copy thereof, is usually printed at the king's press, for the information of the whole land. And formerly, before the invention of printing, it was used to be published by the sheriff of every county; the king's writ being sent to him at the end of every session, together with a transcript of all the acts made at that session, commanding him, "ut statuta illa, et omnes articulos in eisdem contentos, in singulis locis ubi expedire viderit, publice proclamari, et firmiter teneri et observari faciat." And the usage was to proclaim them at his county court, and there to keep them, that whoever would might read or take copies thereof; which custom continued till the reign of Henry the seventh.a

An act of parliament, thus made, is the exercise of the highest authority that this kingdom acknowledges upon earth. It

z D'ewes journ. 35. a 3 Inst. 41. 4 Inst 26.

70. The statutes made by congress are deposited in the office of the secretary of state, there to be safely kept, and are to be recorded in books provided for that purpose, L. U. S. 1 cong. 1 Sess. c. 14. The acts of the state legislature are preserved by the clerk of the house of delegates; by an act of 1796, he is allowed a salary as keeper of the rolls. As to the manner of promulgating the acts of congress and of the state legislature. See note 1. p. 46. Vol. I. Part I.

hath power to bind every subject in the land, and the dominions thereunto belonging; nay, even the king himself, if particularly named therein. And it cannot be altered, amended, dispensed with, suspended, or repealed, but in the same forms, and by the same authority of parliament: for it is a maxim in law, that it requires the same strength to dissolve, as to create an obligation. It is true, it was formerly held, that the king might, in many cases, dispense with penal statutes:b but now by statute 1 W. and M. st. 2. c. 2, it is declared, that the suspending or dispensing with laws by regal authority, without consent of parliament, is illegal.71

VII. There remains only, in the seventh and last place, to add a word or two concerning the manner in which parliaments may be adjourned, prorogued, or dissolved.

An adjournment is no more than a continuance of the session from one day to another, as the word itself signifies: and this is done by the authority of each house, separately, every day;72

and sometimes for a fortnight or a month together, as at Christmas or Easter, or upon other particular occasions. But the adjournment of one house is no adjournment of the other.c It

b Finch. L. 81. 234. Bacon. Elem. c. 19. c 4 Inst. 28.

71. All power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws, by any authority, without the consent of the representatives of the people, is injurious to their rights, and ought not to be exercised. Bill of Rights, Art. 7.

72. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 5. In case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, (but in no other case whatsoever, I presume, Art. 1. §. 7.) the president of the United States may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper. C. U. S. Art. 2. §. 3. The governor of the commonwealth shall not prorogue, or adjourn the assembly during their sitting, nor dissolve them at any time. C. V. Art. 10.

hath been usual, when his majesty hath signified his pleasure, that both, or either of the houses should adjourn themselves to a certain day, to obey the king's pleasure, so signified, and to adjourn accordingly.d Otherwise, besides the indecorum of a refusal, a prorogation would assuredly follow; which would often be very inconvenient both to public and private business. For prorogation puts an end to the session; and then such bills as are only begun and not perfected, must be resumed de novo (if at all) in a subsequent session: whereas, after an adjournment, all things continue in the same state as at the time of the adjournment made, and maybe proceeded on without any fresh commencement.

A prorogation is the continuance of the parliament from one session to another, as an adjournment is a continuation of the session from day to day. This is done by the royal authority, expressed, either by the lord chancellor in his majesty's presence, or by commission from the crown, or frequently by proclamation.73 Both houses are necessarily prorogued at the same time;

it not being a prorogation of the house of lords, or commons, but of the parliament. The session is never understood to be at an end until a prorogation: though, unless some act be passed, or some judgment given in parliament, it is in truth no session at all.e And formerly the usage was, for the king to give the royal assent to all such bills as he approved, at the end of every session, and then to prorogue the parliament; though sometimes only for a

d Com. Journ. passim. e. g. 11 June, 1572. 5 April, 1604. 4 Jun. 14 Nov. 18 Dec. 1621. 11 July, 1625. 13 Sept. 1660. 25 July, 1667. 4 Aug. 1685. 24 Feb. 1691 21 June, 1712. 16 April, 1717. 3 Feb. 1741. 10 Dec. 1745. 21 May, 1768.

e 4 Inst. 28. Hale of parl. 38. Hut. 61.

73. As the executive authority of the United States cannot interfere in the adjournments of congress, Art. 1. §. 7, except in case of disagreement between the two houses, Art. 2. §. 3, it seems sufficiently evident that he cannot in any case prorogue them. The executive of Virginia is expressly prohibited from exercising this authority, as was mentioned in the last note. C. V. Art. 10.

day or two:f after which all business then depending in the houses was to be begun again. Which custom obtained so strongly, that it once became a question,g whether giving the royal assent to a single bill did not of course put an end to the session. And, though it was then resolved in the negative, yet the notion was so deeply rooted, that the statute 1 Car. I. c. 7, was passed to declare, that the king's assent to that and some other acts should not put an end to the session; and, even so late as the reign of Charles II, we find a proviso frequently tacked to a bill,h that his majesty's assent thereto should not determine the session of parliament. But it now seems to be allowed, that a prorogation must be expressly made, in order to determine the session. And, if at the time of an actual rebellion, or imminent danger of invasion, the parliament shall be separated by adjournment or prorogation, the king is empoweredi to call them together by proclamation, with fourteen days notice of the time appointed for their re-assembling.

A dissolution is the civil death of the parliament; and this may be effected three ways: 1. By the king's will, expressed either in person or by representation. For, as the king has the sole right of convening the parliament, so also, it is a branch of the royal prerogative, that he may (whenever he pleases) prorogue the parliament for a time, or put a final period to it's existence. If nothing had a right to prorogue or dissolve a parliament but itself, it might happen to become perpetual. And this would be extremely dangerous, if at any time it should attempt to encroach upon the executive power: as was fatally experienced by the unfortunate king Charles the first; who, having unadvisedly passed an act to continue the parliament then in being till such time as it should please to dissolve itself, at last fell a sacrifice to that inordinate power, which he himself had consented to give them. It is, therefore, extremely necessary, that the crown should be empowered to regulate the duration of these assemblies, under the limitations which the English constitution has

f Com. Journ. 21 Oct. 1553. g Ibid. 21 Nov. 1554. h Stat. 12 Car. II. c. 1. 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 1. i Stat. 30 Geo. II. c. 25.

prescribed: so that, on the one hand, they may frequently and regularly come together, for the dispatch of business, and redress of grievances; and may not, on the other, even with the consent of the crown, be continued to an inconvenient or unconstitutional length.

2. A parliament may be dissolved by the demise of the crown. This dissolution formerly happened immediately upon

the death of the reigning sovereign: for he being considered in

law as the head of the parliament, (caput, principium, et finis,) that failing, the whole body was held to be extinct. But, the calling a new parliament immediately on the inauguration of the successor, being found inconvenient, and dangers being apprehended from having no parliament in being, in case of a disputed succession, it was enacted by the statutes 7 and 8 W. III. c. 15, and 6 Ann. c. 7, that the parliament in being shall continue for six months after the death of any king or queen, unless sooner prorogued or dissolved by the successor: that, if the parliament be, at the time of the king's death, separated by adjournment or prorogation, it shall, notwithstanding, assemble immediately:

and that, if no parliament is then in being, the members of the last parliament shall assemble, and be again a parliament.

3. Lastly, a parliament maybe dissolved or expire by length of time:74 For if either the legislative body were perpetual;

or might last for the life of the prince who convened them, as formerly; and were so to be supplied, by occasionally filling the vacancies with new representatives; in these cases, if it were once corrupted, the evil would be past all remedy: but when different bodies succeed each other, if the people see cause to disapprove of the present, they may rectify it's faults in the next. A legislative assembly also, which is sure to be separated again, (whereby it's members will themselves become private men, and subject to the full extent of the laws which they have enacted for others) will think themselves bound, in interest as well

74. This is the only method by which either congress, or the state legislature, can be dissolved. The former exists two years, and the latter one, only. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 2. C. V. Art. 5. 10.

as duty, to make only such laws as are good. The utmost extent of time that the same parliament was allowed to sit, by the statute 6 W. and M. c. 2, was three years; after the expiration of which reckoning from the return of the first summons, the parliament was to have no longer continuance. But by the statute 1 Geo. I. st. 2, c. 38, (in order, professedly, to prevent the great and continued expences of frequent elections, and the violent heats and animosities consequent thereupon, and for the peace and security of the government then just recovering from the late rebellion) this term was prolonged to seven years: and, what alone is an instance of the vast authority of parliament, the very same house, that was chosen for three years, enacted it's own continuance for seven. So that, as our constitution now stands, the parliament must expire, or die a natural death, at the end of every seventh year; if not sooner dissolved by the

royal prerogative,

CHAPTER THE THIRD.

OF THE KING,1 AND HIS TITLE.

THE supreme executive power of these kingdoms is vested by our laws in a single person, the king or queen: for it matters not to which sex the crown descends; but the person inti-

1. "Released from the control of prescriptive authority, Americans determined also to break the fetters of prescriptive opinion, and to make use of the light of reason to guide them in their future arrangements. The rights of Britons made up the sum of their first demands, and of their wishes: but in the pursuit of this object, it was their peculiar happiness to discover, and to obtain what was infinitely more precious: the rights of human nature. They perceived no claim, in reason or justice, that any one man could have, to be, by inheritance, a ruler over millions; nor could they find that the right of hereditary pre-eminence, in any class of men, rested on more tenable ground. It remained then to enquire, whether considerations of national interest, dictated an acquiescence in principles, which reason seemed to disclaim.

"From the documents of history, it was evident that the pretended right of kings was not conceded from a general experience of it's utility, but was a mere usurpation, maintained by violence and fraud. Nor was there a want of proof, that the powers of monarchy had been employed, less for the purpose of diffusing happiness among men, than for that of rendering them subservient, to the ambition and pleasures of a few, who viewed and treated them as cattle, only created to wear the yoke of despotism. It appeared that the great mass of mankind had, in all times past, been held in a state of servitude; that their mental faculties had been stifled by oppression, and the fruits of their bodily labour seized on, to satisfy the rapacious luxury of their rulers. It was perceived, also, that the cruel and destructive wars, which, in all ages, had spread horror and desolation over the earth, arose, not from an inherent enmity in human nature, against itself; not from a savage desire in

tled to it, whether male or female, is immediately invested with all the ensigns, rights, and prerogatives of sovereign power; as is declared by statute 1 Mar. st. 3. c. 1.

In discoursing of the royal rights and authority, I shall consider the king under six distinct views: 1. With regard to his title. 2. His royal family. 3. His councils. 4. His duties. 5. His prerogative. 6. His revenue. And first, with regard to his title.

The executive power of the English nation being vested in a single person, by the general consent of the people, the evidence of which general consent is long and immemorial usage, it became necessary to the freedom and peace of the state, that a rule should be laid down, uniform, universal, and permanent;

in order to mark out with precision, who is that single person, to whom are committed (in subservience to the law of the land) the care and protection of the community; and to whom, in return, the duty and allegiance of every individual are due. It is of the highest importance to the public tranquility, and to the

men to destroy each other, but from the insatiable thirst of princes, after false glory, conquest and empire. It was plain to be observed, that as the sense of mutual dependence was lost among men, the obligations of humanity were forgotten; that the insolence and cruelty of monarchs grew with the growth of their power; and that their vanity exacted homage in proportion to the multitude and enormity of their crimes. For the more effectual advancement of the interests of illegitimate authority, fraud had been called in to the aid of force, the holy name of the Almighty himself, had been profaned, and prostituted to the vile purposes of deception, and religion reduced to a system of scandalous hypocrisy.

"Such being the known state of recorded facts, for a people, who were free, to offer voluntary submission to the dominion of princes, would have been as unwise, as to expose themselves to the ferocious rage of prowling wolves and tygers. They would have acted no better than the foolish insect, which, being dazzled with the splendour of the flame, from which it has recently escaped, immediately rushes into it again, to be entirely consumed." Oration in commemoration of American Independence, by T. T. T. of South-Carolina.

consciences of private men, that this rule should be clear and indisputable: and our constitution has not left us in the dark upon this material occasion. It will, therefore, be the endeavour of this chapter to trace out the constitutional doctrine of the royal succession, with that freedom and regard to truth, yet mixed with that reverence and respect, which the principles of liberty and the dignity of the subject require.

The grand fundamental maxim upon which the jus coronae, or right of succession to the throne of these kingdoms, depends, I take to be this: "that the crown is, by common law and constitutional custom, hereditary; and this in a manner peculiar to itself: but that the right of inheritance may from time to time be changed or limited by act of parliament; under which limitations the crown still continues hereditary." And this proposition it will be the business of this chapter to prove, in all it's branches; first, that the crown is hereditary; secondly, that it is hereditary in a manner peculiar to itself; thirdly, that this inheritance is subject to limitation by parliament; lastly, that when it is so limited, it is hereditary in the new proprietor.

1. First, it is in general hereditary, or descendible to the next heir, on the death of demise of the last proprietor. All regal governments must be either hereditary or elective: and, as I believe there is no instance wherein the crown of England has ever been asserted to be elective, except by the regicides at the infamous and unparalleled trial of king Charles I, it must of consequence be hereditary. Yet while I assert an hereditary, I by no means intend a jure divino, title to the throne. Such a title may be allowed to have subsisted under the theocratic establishments of the children of Israel in Palestine: but it never yet subsisted in any other country; save only so far as kingdoms, like other human fabrics, are subject to the general and ordinary dispensations of providence. Nor, indeed, have a jure divino and an hereditary right any necessary connexion with each other; as some have very weakly imagined. The titles of David and Jehu were equally jure divino, as those of either Solomon or Ahab; and yet David slew the sons of his predecessor, and Jehu his predecessor himself. And when

our kings have the same warrant as they had, whether it be to sit upon the throne of their fathers, or to destroy the house of the preceding sovereign, they will then, and not before, possess the crown of England by a right like theirs, immediately derived from heaven. The hereditary right which the laws of England acknowledge, owes it's origin to the founders of our constitution, and to them only. It has no relation to, nor depends upon, the civil laws of the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans, or any other nation upon earth: the municipal laws of one society having no connexion with, or influence upon, the fundamental polity of another. The founders of our English monarchy might perhaps, if they had thought proper, have made it an elective monarchy: but they rather chose, and upon good reason, to establish originally a succession by inheritance. This has been acquiesced in by general consent; and ripened by degrees into common law; the very same title that every private man has to his own estate. Lands are not naturally descendible any more than thrones: but the law has thought proper, for the benefit and peace of the public, to establish hereditary succession in the one as well as the other.

It must be owned, an elective monarchy seems to be the most obvious, and best suited of any to the rational principles of government) and the freedom of human nature: and accordingly we find from history that, in the infancy and first rudiments of almost every state, the leader, chief magistrate, or prince, hath usually been elective. And, if the individuals who compose that state, could always continue true to first principles, uninfluenced by passion or prejudice, unassailed by corruption, and unawed by violence, elective succession were as much to be desired in a kingdom, as in other inferior communities. The best, the wisest, and the bravest man would then be sure of receiving that crown, which his endowments have merited; and the sense of an unbiassed majority would be dutifully acquiesced in by the few who were of different opinions. But history and observation will inform us, that elections of every kind (in the present state of human nature) are too frequently brought about by influence, partiality, and artifice: and, even where the case is otherwise, these practices will

be often suspected, and as constantly charged upon the successful, by a splenetic disappointed minority.2 This is an evil to which all societies are liable; as well those of a private and domestic kind, as the great community of the public, which regulates and includes the rest. But, in the former, there is this advantage; that such suspicions, if false, proceed no farther than jealousies and murmurs, which time will effectually suppress;

and, if true, the injustice may be remedied by legal means, by an appeal to those tribunals to which every member of society has (by becoming such) virtually engaged to submit. Whereas, in the great and independent society, which every nation composes, there is no superior to resort to but the law of nature;

no method to redress the infringements of that law, but the actual exertion of private force. As, therefore, between two nations, complaining of mutual injuries, the quarrel can only be decided by the law of arms; so in one and the same nation, when the fundamental principles of their common union are supposed to be invaded, and more especially when the appointment of their chief magistrate is alleged to be unduly made, the only tribunal to which the complaints can appeal is that of the God of battles, the only process by which the appeal, can be carried on is that of a civil and intestine war. An hereditary succession to the crown is therefore now established, in this and most other countries, in order to prevent that periodical bloodshed and misery, which the history of antient imperial Rome, and the more modern experience of Poland and Germany, may shew us are the consequences of elective kingdoms.3

2. If the student will peruse the Federalist, (a collection of essays printed in New-York, 1788) No. 68, he will see a very satisfactory answer to these objections, so far as they may be supposed to apply to the election of a president of the United States.

3. "The most plausible plea that has ever been offered in favour of hereditary succession is, that it preserves a nation from civil wars, and were it true, it would be weighty; whereas, it is the most barefaced falsity ever imposed upon mankind. The whole history of England disowns the fact. Thirty kings, and two minors, have reigned in that distracted kingdom since the conquest, in which time, there have been (including the revolution) no less than eight

2. But, secondly, as to the particular mode of inheritance, it in general corresponds with the feodal path of descents, chalked out by the common law in the succession to landed estates; yet with one or two material exceptions. Like estates, the crown will descend lineally to the issue of the reigning monarch; as it did from king John to Richard II, through a regular pedigree of six lineal generations. As in common descents, the preference of males to females, and the right of primogeniture among the males, are strictly adhered to. Thus Edward V, succeeded to the crown, in preference to Richard his younger brother, and Elizabeth his elder sister. Like lands or tenements, the crown, on failure of the male line, descends to the issue female; according to the antient British custom remarked by Tacitus;a "solent foeminarum ductu bellare, et sexum in imperiis non discernere." Thus Mary I succeeded to Edward VI; and the line of Margaret queen of Scots, the daughter of Henry VII, succeeded on failure of the line of Henry VIII, his son. But, among the females, the crown descends by right of primogeniture to the eldest daughter only and her issue; and not, as in common inheritances, to all the daughters at once; the evident necessity of a sole succession to the throne having occasioned the royal law of descents to depart from the common law in this respect: and, therefore, queen Mary, on the death of her brother, succeeded to the crown alone, and not in partnership with her sister Elizabeth. Again:

the doctrine of representation prevails in the descent of the crown, as it does in other inheritances; whereby the lineal descendants of any person deceased, stand in the same place as their ancestor, if living, would have done. Thus, Richard II, succeeded his grandfather Edward III, in right of his father the black prince;

to the exclusion of all his uncles, his grandfather's younger children. Lastly, on failure of lineal descendants, the crown goes to the next collateral relations of the late king; provided they are lineally descended from the blood royal, that is, from that

a In vit. Agricolae.

civil wars, and nineteen rebellions. Wherefore, instead of making for peace, it makes against it, and destroys the very foundation it seems to stand on," Paine's Common Sense, p. 19. Albany, 1794.

royal stock which originally acquired the crown. Thus, Henry I, succeeded to William II, John to Richard I, and James I to Elizabeth; being all derived from the conqueror, who was then the only regal stock. But herein there is no objection (as in the case of common descents) to the succession of a brother, an uncle, or other collateral relation, of the half blood; that is, where the relationship proceeds not from the same couple of ancestors (which constitutes a kinsman of the whole blood) but from a single ancestor only; as when two persons are derived from the same father, and not from the same mother, or vice versa: provided only, that the one ancestor, from whom both are descended, he that from whose veins the blood royal is communicated to each. Thus, Mary I, inherited to Edward VI, and Elizabeth inherited to Mary; all children of the same father, king Henry VIII, but all by different mothers. The reason of which diversity, between royal and common descents, will be better understood hereafter, when we examine the nature of inheritances in general.

3. The doctrine of hereditary right does by no means imply an indefeasible right to the throne. No man will, I think, assert this, that has considered our laws, constitution, and history, without prejudice, and with any degree of attention. It is, unquestionably, in the breast of the supreme legislative authority of this kingdom, the king and both houses of parliament, to defeat this hereditary right; and, by particular entails, limitations, and provisions, to exclude the immediate heir, and vest the inheritance in any one else. This is strictly consonant to our laws and constitution; as may be gathered from the expression so frequently used in our statute book, of "the king's majesty, his heirs, and successors." In which we may observe, that as the word, "heirs," necessarily implies an inheritance or hereditary right, generally subsisting in the royal person; so the word, "successors," distinctly taken, must imply that this inheritance may sometimes be broken through; or, that there may be a successor, without being the heir, of the king. And this is so extremely reasonable, that without such a power, lodged somewhere, our polity would be very defective. For, let us barely suppose so melancholy a case, as that the heir apparent should be a lunatic,

an ideot, of otherwise incapable of reigning: how miserable would the condition of the nation be, if he were also incapable of being set aside! .... It is, therefore, necessary that this power should be lodged somewhere: and yet the inheritance, and regal dignity, would be very precarious indeed, if this power were expressly and avowedly lodged in the hands of the subject only, to be exerted whenever prejudice, caprice, or discontent should happen to take the lead. Consequently, it can no where be so properly lodged as in the two houses of parliament, by and with the consent of the reigning king; who, it is not to be supposed, will agree to any thing improperly prejudicial to the rights of his own descendants. And, therefore, in the king, lords, and commons, in parliament assembled, our laws have expressly lodged it.

4. But, fourthly; however the crown may be limited or transferred, it still retains it's descendible quality, and becomes hereditary in the wearer of it. And hence in our law the king is said never to die, in his political capacity; though, in common with other men, he is subject to mortality in his natural: because, immediately upon the natural death of Henry, William, or Edward, the king survives in his successor. For the right of the crown vests, eo instanti, upon his heir; either the haeres natus, if the course of descent remains unimpeached, or the haeres factus, if the inheritance be under any particular settlement. So that there can be no interregnum; but, as sir Matthew Hale b observes, the right of sovereignty is fully invested in the successor by the very descent of the crown. And, therefore, however acquired, it becomes in him absolutely hereditary, unless by the rules of the limitation it is otherwise ordered and determined. In the same manner as landed estates, to continue our former comparison, are by the law hereditary, or descendible to the heirs of the owner; but still there exists a power, by which the property of those lands may be transferred to another person. If this transfer be made simply and absolutely, the lands will be hereditary in the new owner, and descend to his heir at law: but if the transfer be clogged with any limitations, conditions, or entails, the lands must descend in that channel, so limited and prescribed, and no other.

1 Hist. P. C. 61.

In these four points consists, as I take it, the constitutional notion of hereditary right to the throne: which will be still farther elucidated, and made clear beyond all dispute, from a short historical view of the successions to the crown of England, the doctrines of our antient lawyers, and the several acts of parliament that have from time to time been made, to create, to declare, to confirm, to limit, or to bar, the hereditary title to the throne. And in the pursuit of this inquiry we shall find, that, from the days of Egbert, the first sole monarch of this kingdom, even to the present, the four cardinal maxims above-mentioned have ever been held the constitutional canons of succession. It is true, this succession, through fraud, or force, or sometimes through necessity, when in hostile times the crown descended on a minor or the like, has been very frequently suspended; but has generally at last returned back into the old hereditary channel, though sometimes a very considerable period has intervened. And, even in those instances where the succession has been violated, the crown has ever been looked upon as hereditary in the wearer of it. Of which the usurpers themselves were so sensible, that they for the most part endeavoured to vamp up some feeble shew of a title by descent, in order to amuse the people, while they gained the possession of the kingdom. And, when possession was once gained, they considered it as the purchase or acquisition of a new estate of inheritance, and transmitted or endeavoured to transmit it to their own posterity, by a kind of hereditary right of usurpation.

King Egbert, about the year 800, found himself in possession of the throne of the west Saxons, by a long and undisturbed descent from his ancestors of above three hundred years. How his ancestors acquired their title, whether by force, by fraud, by contract, or by election, it matters not much to inquire; and is indeed a point of such high antiquity, as must render all inquiries at best but plausible guesses. His right must be supposed indisputably good, because we know no better. The other kingdoms of the heptarchy he acquired, some by consent, but most by a voluntary submission. And it is an established maxim in civil polity, and the law of nations, that when one country is

united to another in such a manner, as that one keeps it's government and states, and the other loses them; the latter entirely assimilates with or is melted down in the former, and must adopt it's laws and customs.c And in pursuance of this maxim there hath ever been, since the union of the heptarchy in king Egbert, a general acquiescence under the hereditary monarchy of the west Saxons, through all the united kingdoms.

From Egbert to the death of Edmund Ironside, a period of above two hundred years, the crown descended regularly, through a succession of fifteen princes, without any deviation or interruption: save only that the sons of king Ethelwolf succeeded to each other in the kingdom, without regard to the children of the elder branches, according to the rule of succession prescribed by their father, and confirmed by the wittena-gemote, in the heat of the Danish invasions; and also, that king Edred, the uncle of Edwy, mounted the throne for about nine years, in the right of his nephew a minor, the times being very troublesome and dangerous. But this was with a view to preserve, and not to destroy, the succession; and accordingly Edwy succeeded him.

King Edmund Ironside was obliged, by the hostile irruption of the Danes, at first to divide his kingdom with Canute, king of Denmark; and Canute, after his death, seized the whole of it, Edmund's sons being driven into foreign countries. Here the succession was suspended by actual force, and a new family introduced upon the throne: in whom, however, this new acquired throne continued hereditary for three reigns; when, upon the death of Hardiknute, the antient Saxon line was restored in the person of Edward the confessor.

He was not, indeed, the true heir to the crown, being the younger brother of king Edmund Ironside, who had a son Edward, sirnamed (from his exile) the outlaw, still living. But this son was then in Hungary; and, the English having just shaken off the Danish yoke, it was necessary that somebody on

c Puff. L. of N. and N. b. 8. c. 12. §. 6.

the spot should mount the throne; and the confessor was the next of the royal line then in England. On his decease without issue, Harold II usurped the throne; and almost at the same instant came on the Norman invasion: the right to the crown being all the time in Edgar, sirnamed Atheling (which signifies in the Saxon language illustrious, or of royal blood) who was the son of Edward the outlaw, and grandson of Edmund Ironside;

or, as Matthew Parisd well expresses the sense of our old constitution, "Edmundus autem latus ferreum, rex naturalis de stirpe regum, genuit Edwardum; et Edwardus genuit Edgarum, cui de jure debebatur regnum Anglorum."

William the Norman claimed the crown by virtue of a pretended grant from king Edward the confessor; a grant which, if real, was in itself utterly invalid: because it was made, as Harold well observed in his reply to William's demand,e "absque generali senatus, et populi conventu et edicto;" which also very plainly implies, that it then was generally understood that the king, with consent of the general council, might dispose of the crown and change the line of succession. William's title, however, was altogether as good as Harold's, he being a mere private subject, and an utter stranger to the royal blood. Edgar Atheling's undoubted right was overwhelmed by the violence of the times; though frequently asserted by the English nobility after the conquest, till such time as he died without issue: but all their attempts proved unsuccessful, and only served the more firmly to establish the crown in the family which had newly acquired it.

This conquest then by William of Normandy was, like that of Canute before, a forcible transfer of the crown of England into a new family: but, the crown being so transferred, all the inherent properties of the crown were with it transferred also. For, the victory obtained at Hastings, not beingf a victory over the nation collectively, but only over the person of Harold, the only right that the conqueror could pretend to acquire thereby,

d A. D. 1066.

c William of Malmsb. l. 3.

f Hale, Hist. C. L. c. 5. Seld. Review of Tithes, c. 8.

was the right to possess the crown of England, not to alter the nature of its government. And, therefore, as the English laws still remained in force, he must necessarily take the crown subject to those laws, and with all it's inherent properties; the first and principal of which was it's descendibility. Here then we must drop our race of Saxon kings, at least for a while, and derive our descents from William the conqueror as from a new stock, who acquired by right of war (such as it is, yet still the dernier resort of kings) a strong and undisputed title to the inheritable crown of England.

Accordingly it descended from him to his sons William II. and Henry I. Robert, it must be owned, his eldest son, was kept out of possession by the arts and violence of his brethren;

who perhaps might proceed upon a notion, which prevailed for some time in the law of descents, (though never adopted as the rule of public successionsg) that when the eldest son was already provided for, (as Robert was constituted duke of Normandy by his father's will) in such a case the next brother was entitled to enjoy the rest of their father's inheritance. But as he died without issue, Henry at last had a good title to the throne, whatever he might have at first.

Stephen of Blois, who succeeded him, was indeed the grand-son of the conqueror, by Adelicia his daughter, and claimed the throne by a feeble kind of hereditary right: not as being the nearest of the male line, but as the nearest male of the blood royal, excepting his brother Theobald; who was earl of Blois, and therefore seems to have waved, as he certainly never insisted on, so troublesome and precarious a claim. The real right was in the empress Matilda or Maud, the daughter of Henry I;

the rule of succession being (where women are admitted at all) that the daughter of a son shall be preferred to the son of a daughter. So that Stephen was little better than a mere usurper;

and therefore he rather chose to rely on a title by election,h while

g See lord Lyttleton's Life of Henry II. Vol. I. page 467. h "Ego Stephanus Dei gratia assensu cleri et populi in regem Anglorum

electus, &c." (Cart. A.D. 1136. Ric. de Hagustald. 314. Hearne ad Guil.

Neubr. 711.)

the empress Maud did not fail to assert her hereditary right by the sword: which dispute was attended with various success, and ended at last in the compromise made at Wallingford, that Stephen should keep the crown; but that Henry, the son of Maud, should succeed him; as he afterwards accordingly did.

Henry the second of that name, was (next after his mother Matilda) the undoubted heir of William the conqueror; but he had also another connexion in blood, which endeared him still farther to the English. He was lineally descended from Edmund Ironside, the last of the Saxon race of hereditary kings. For Edward the outlaw, the son of Edmund Ironside, had (besides Edgar Atheling, who died without issue) a daughter Margaret, who was married to Malcolm king of Scotland; and in her the Saxon hereditary right resided. By Malcolm she had several children, and among the rest Matilda the wife of Henry I, who by him had the empress Maud, the mother of Henry II. Upon which account the Saxon line is in our histories frequently said to have been restored in his person: though in reality that right subsisted in the sons of Malcolm by queen Margaret; king Henry's best title being as heir to the conqueror.

From Henry II, the crown descended to his eldest son Richard I, who dying childless, the right vested in his nephew Arthur, the son of Geoffrey his next brother: but John, the youngest son of king Henry, seized the throne; claiming, as appears from his charters, the crown by hereditary right:i that is to say, he was next of kin to the deceased king, being his surviving brother: whereas Arthur was removed one degree farther, being his brother's son, though by right of representation he stood in the place of his father Geoffrey. And however flimsy this title, and those of William Rufus and Stephen of Blois, may appear at this distance to us, after the law of descents hath now been settled for so many centuries, they were sufficient to puzzle the understandings of our brave, but unlettered ancestors. Nor indeed can we wonder at the number

i " .... Regni Angliae; quod nobis jure competit haereditario." Spelm. Hist. R. Job. apud Wilkins, 354.

of partizans, who espoused the pretensions of king John in particular; since even in the reign of his father king Henry II, it was a point undetermined,i whether, even in common inheritances, the child of an elder brother should succeed to the land in right of representation, or the younger surviving brother in right of proximity of blood. Nor is it, to this day, decided in the collateral succession to the fiefs of the empire, whether the order of the stocks, or the proximity of degree, shall take place.k However, on the death of Arthur and his sister Eleanor without issue, a clear and indisputable title vested in Henry III, the son of John: and from him to Richard the second, a succession of six generations, the crown descended in the true hereditary line. Under one of which race of princesl we find it declared in parliament, "that the law of the crown of England is, and always hath been, that the children of the king of England, whether born in England, or elsewhere, ought to bear the inheritance after the death of their ancestors. Which law our sovereign lord the king, the prelates, earls and barons, and other great men, together with all the commons in parliament assembled, do approve and affirm for ever."

Upon Richard the second's resignation of the crown, he having no children, the right resulted to the issue of his grand-father Edward III. That king had many children, besides his eldest, Edward the black prince of Wales, the father of Richard II: but to avoid confusion I shall only mention three; William his second son, who died without issue; Lionel duke of Clarence, his third son; and John of Gant duke of Lancaster, his fourth. By the rules of succession therefore the posterity of Lionel duke of Clarence, were entitled to the throne, upon the resignation of king Richard; and had accordingly been declared by the king, many years before, the presumptive heirs of the crown: which declaration was also confirmed in parliament.m But Henry duke of Lancaster, the son of John of Gant, having then a large army in the kingdom, the pretence of raising which was to re-

i Glanv. l. 7. c. 3.

k Mod. Un. Hist. xxx. 512.

l Stat. 25 Edw. III. st. 2.

m Standford's geneal. hist. 246.

cover his patrimony from the king, and to redress the grievances of the subject, it was impossible for any other title to be asserted with any safety; and he became king under the title of Henry IV. But, as Sir Matthew Hale remarks,n though the people unjustly assisted Henry IV, in his usurpation of the crown, yet he was not admitted thereto, until he had declared that he claimed, not as a conqueror, (which he very much inclined to do)o but as a successor, descended by right line of the blood royal; as appears from the rolls of parliament in those times .... And in order to this he set up a shew of two titles: the one upon the pretence of being the first of the blood royal in the intire male line, whereas the duke of Clarence left only one daughter Philippa; from which female branch, by a marriage with Edmond Mortimer earl of March, the house of York descended:

the other, by reviving an exploded rumour, first propagated by John of Gant, that Edmond earl of Lancaster (to whom Henry's mother was heiress) was in reality the elder brother of king Edward I; though his parents, on account of his personal deformity, had imposed him on the world for the younger: and, therefore Henry would be entitled to the crown, either as successor to Richard II, in case the intire male line was allowed a preference to the female; or, even prior to that unfortunate prince, if the crown could descend through a female; while an intire male line was existing.

However, as in Edward the third's time we find the parliament approving and affirming the law of the crown, as before stated, so in the reign of Henry IV they actually exerted their right of new-settling the succession to the crown. And this was done by the statute 7 Hen. IV. c. 2, whereby it is enacted, that the inheritance of the crown and realms of England and France, and all other the king's dominions, shall be set and remainp in the person of our sovereign lord the king, and in the heirs of his body issuing;" and prince Henry is declared heir apparent to the crown, to hold to him and the heirs of his body issuing, with remainder to lord Thomas, lord John, and lord Humphrey, the king's sons, and the heirs of their bodies,

n Hist. C. L. c. 5. o Seld. tit. hon. 1, 3. p Soit mys et demoerge.

respectively: which is indeed nothing more than the law would have done before, provided Henry the fourth had been a rightful king. It however serves to shew that it was then generally understood, that the king and parliament had a right to new-model and regulate the succession to the crown; and we may also observe, with what caution and delicacy the parliament then avoided declaring any sentiment of Henry's original title. However, sir Edward Coke, more than once, expressly declares,q that at the time of passing this act, the crown was in the descent from Philippa, daughter and heir of Lionel duke of Clarence.

Nevertheless the crown descended regularly from Henry IV to his son and grandson Henry V and VI; in the latter of whose reigns the house of York asserted their dormant title; and, after imbruing the kingdom in blood and confusion, for seven years together, at last established it in the person of Edward IV. At his accession to the throne, after a breach of the succession, that continued for three descents, and above threescore years, the distinction of a king de jure, and a king de facto began to be first taken; in order to indemnify such as had submitted to the late establishment, and to provide for the peace of the kingdom, by confirming all honours conferred, and all acts done, by those who were now called the usurpers, not tending to the disherison of the rightful heir. In statute 1 Edw. IV. c. 1. the three Henrys are stiled, "late kings of England successively

in dede, and not of ryght." And, in all the charters which I have met with of king Edward, wherever he has occasion to speak of any of the line of Lancaster, he calls them "nuper de facto, et non de jure, reges Angliae,"

Edward IV. left two sons and a daughter; the eldest of which sons, king Edward V enjoyed the regal dignity for a very short time, and was then deposed by Richard, his unnatural uncle, who immediately usurped the royal dignity; having previously insinuated to the populace a suspicion of bastardy in the children of Edward IV. to make a shew of some hereditary title: after which he is generally believed to have murdered his

q 4 Inst. 37, 205.

two nephews; upon whose death the right of the crown devolved to their sister Elizabeth.

The tyrannical reign of king Richard III gave occasion to Henry, earl of Richmond, to assert his tide to the crown. A title the most remote and unaccountable that ever was set up, and which nothing could have given success to, but the universal detestation of the then usurper, Richard. For, besides that he claimed under a descent from John of Gant, whose title was now exploded, the claim, (such as it was) was through John, earl of Somerset, a bastard son, begotten by John of Gant upon Catherine Swinford. It is true, that, by an act of parliament 20 Richd. II, this son was, with others, legitimated, and made inheritable to all lands, offices, and dignities, as if he had been born in wedlock: but still, with an express reservation of the crown) "excepta dignitate regali."r

Notwithstanding all this, immediately after the battle of Bos-worth-field, he assumed the regal dignity; the right of the crown then being, as sir Edward Coke expressly declares,s in Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV: and his possession was established by parliament, holden the first year of his reign. In the act for which purpose, the parliament seems to have copied the caution of their predecessors in the reign of Henry IV. and, therefore, (as lord Bacon, the historian of this reign, observes) carefully avoided any recognition of Henry VII's right, which indeed was none at all: and the king would not have it by way of new law or ordinance, whereby a right might seem to be created and conferred upon him; and, therefore, a middle way was rather chosen, by way (as the noble historian expresses it) of establishment, and that under covert and indifferent words, "that the inheritance of the crown should rest, remain, and abide, in king Henry VII and the heirs of his body:" thereby providing for the future, and at the same time acknowledging his present possession; but not determining either way, whether that possession was de jure or de facto merely. However, he soon after married Elizabeth of York, the undoubted heiress of the conqueror, and thereby gained (as sir Edward Cokess de-

r 4 Inst. 36. s Ibid. 37. ss 4 Inst. 37.

dares) by much his best title to the crown. Whereupon the act made in his favour was so much disregarded, that it never was printed in our statute books.

Henry the eighth, the issue of this marriage, succeeded to the crown by clear indisputable hereditary right, and transmitted it to his three children in successive order. But in his reign we at several times find the parliament busy in regulating the succession to the kingdom. And, first, by statute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 12, which recites the mischiefs which have, and may, ensue, by disputed titles, because no perfect and substantial provision hath been made by law concerning the succession; and then enacts, that the crown shall be entailed to his majesty, and the sons or heirs male of his body; and in default of such sons to the lady Elizabeth (who is declared to be the king's eldest issue female, in exclusion of the lady Mary, on account of her supposed illegitimacy by the divorce of her mother, queen Catherine) and to the lady Elizabeth's heirs of her body; and so on, from issue female to issue female, and the heirs of their bodies, by course of inheritance according to their ages, as the crown of England hath been accustomed, and ought to go, in case where there be heirs female of the same; and in default of issue female, then to the king's right heirs for ever. This single statute is an ample proof of all the four positions we at first set out with.

But, upon the king's divorce from Ann Boleyn, this statute was, with regard to the settlement of the crown, repealed by statute 28 Hen. VIII c. 7, wherein the lady Elizabeth is also, as well as the lady Mary, bastardized, and the crown settled on the king's children, by queen Jane Seymore, and his future wives;

and, in defect of such children, then with this remarkable remainder, to such persons as the king by letters patent, or last will and testament, should limit and appoint the same. A vast power; but, notwithstanding, as it was regularly vested in him by the supreme legislative authority, it was, therefore, indisputably valid. But this power was never carried into execution;

fur by statute 34 Hen. VIII. c; 1, the king's two daughters are legitimated again, and the crown is limited to prince Edward by

name, after that to the lady Mary, and then to the lady Elizabeth, and the heirs of their respective bodies; which succession took effect accordingly, being indeed no other than the usual course of the law, with regard to the descent of the crown.

But lest there should remain any doubt in the minds of the people, through this jumble of acts for limiting the succession, by statute 1 Mar. p. 2. c. 1, queen Mary's hereditary right to the throne is acknowleged and recognized in these words: "the crown of these realms is most lawfully, justly, and rightly descended and come to the queen's highness that now is, being the very, true, and undoubted heir and inheritrix thereof." And again, upon the queen's marriage with Philip of Spain, in the statute which settles the preliminaries of that match,t the hereditary right to the crown is thus asserted and declared; "as touching the right of the queen's inheritance in the realm and dominions of England, the children, whether male or female shall succeed in them, according to the known laws, statutes, and customs of the Same." Which determination of the parliament, that the succession shall continue in the usual course, seems tacitly to imply a power of new-modelling and altering it, In case the legislature had thought proper.

On queen Elizabeth's accession, her right is recognized in still stronger terms than her sister's; the parliament acknowleging,u "that the queen's highness is, and in very deed and of most mere right ought to be, by the laws of God, and the laws and statutes of this realm, our most lawful and rightful sovereign liege lady and queen; and that her highness is rightly, lineally, and lawfully descended and come of the blood royal of this realm of England; in and to whose princely person, and to the heirs of her body lawfully to be begotten, after her the imperial crown and dignity of this realm doth belong." And in the same reign, by stat. 13 Eliz. c. 1, we find the right of parliament to direct the succession of the crown asserted in the most explicit words. "If any person shall hold, affirm, or main-lain u that the common laws of this realm, not altered by parliament, ought not to direct the right of the crown of England; or t 1 Mar. p. 2. c. 2. u Stat. 1 Eliz. c. 3.

that the queen's majesty, with and by the authority of parliament, is not able to make laws and statutes of sufficient force and validity, to limit and bind the crown of this realm, and the descent, limitation, inheritance, and government thereof; .... such person, so holding, affirming, or maintaining, shall, during the life of the queen, be guilty of high treason; and after her decease shall be guilty of a misdemesnor, and forfeit his goods and chattels."

On the death of queen Elizabeth, without issue, the line of Henry VIII became extinct. It, therefore, became necessary to recur to the other issue of Henry VII, by Elizabeth of York his queen: whose eldest daughter Margaret having married James IV king of Scotland, king James the sixth of Scotland, and of England the first, was the lineal descendant from that alliance. So that in his person, as clearly as in Henry VIII, centered all the claims of different competitors, from the conquest downwards, he being indisputably the lineal heir of the conqueror. And, what is still more remarkable, in his person also centered the right of the Saxon monarchs, which had been suspended from the conquest till his accession. For, as was formerly observed, Margaret the sister of Edgar Atheling, the daughter of Edward the outlaw, and grand-daughter of king Edmund Ironside, was the person in whom the hereditary right of the Saxon kings, supposing it not abolished by the conquest, resided. She married Malcolm king of Scotland; and Henry II, by a descent from Matilda their daughter, is generally called the restorer of the Saxon line. But it must be remembered, that Malcolm by his Saxon queen had sons as well as daughters; and that the royal family of Scotland from that time downwards were the offspring of Malcolm and Margaret. Of this royal family king James the first was the direct lineal heir, and, therefore, united in his person every possible claim by hereditary right to the English as well as Scotish throne, being the heir both of Egbert and William the conqueror.

And it is no wonder that a prince of more learning than wisdom, who could deduce an hereditary title for more than eight hundred years, should easily be taught by the flatterers of the

times to believe there was something divine in this right, and that the finger of Providence, was visible in its preservation .... Whereas, though a wise institution, it was clearly a human institution; and the right inherent in him no natural, but a positive, right. And in this, and no other light was it taken by the English parliament; who, by statute I Jac. I. c. 1, did "recognize and acknowledge, that immediately upon the dissolution, and decease of Elizabeth, late queen of England, the imperial crown, thereof, did by inherent birth-right, and lawful and undoubted succession, descend and come to his most excellent majesty, as being lineally, justly, and lawfully, next and sole heir of the blood royal of this realm." Not a word here of any right immediately derived from heaven, which, if it existed any where, must be sought for among the aborigines of the island, the antient Britons; among whose princes, indeed some have gone to search it for him.w

But, wild and absurd as the doctrine of divine right most undoubtedly is, it is still more astonishing, that when so many human hereditary rights had centered in this king, his son and heir king Charles the first should be told by those infamous judges, who pronounced his unparalleled sentence, that he was an elective prince, elected by his people, and, therefore, accountable to them, in his own proper person, for his conduct. The confusion, instability, and madness, which followed the fatal catastrophe of that pious and unfortunate prince, will be a standing argument in favour of hereditary monarchy to all future ages;

as they proved at last to the then deluded people: who in order to recover that peace and happiness which for twenty years together they had lost, in a solemn parliamentary convention of the states restored the right heir of the crown. And in the proclamation for that purpose, which was drawn up and attended by both houses,x they declared, "that, according to their duty

w Elizabeth of York, the mother of queen Margaret of Scotland, was heiress of the house of Mortimer. And Mr. Carte observes, that the house of Mortimer, in virtue of it's descent from Glady's only sister to Lewellin ap Jorwerth the great, had the true right to the principality of Wales. Hist. Eng. iii. 705.

x Com. Journ. 8 May, 1660.

and allegiance, they did heartily, joyfully, and unanimously acknowledge and proclaim, that immediately upon the decease of our late sovereign lord king Charles, the imperial crown of these realms did by inherent birth-right and lawful and undoubted succession descend and come to his most excellent majesty Charles the second, and being lineally, justly, and lawfully, next heir of the blood royal of this realm: and thereunto they most humbly and faithfully did submit and oblige themselves their heirs, and posterity for ever."

Thus I think it clearly appears, from the highest authority this nation is acquainted with, that the crown of England hath been ever an hereditary crown; though subject to limitations by parliament. The remainder of this chapter will consist principally of those instances, wherein the parliament has asserted or exercised this right of altering and limiting the succession; a right which, we have seen, was before exercised and asserted in the reigns of Henry IV, Henry VII, Henry VIII, queen Mary, and queen Elizabeth.

The first instance, in point of time, is the famous bill of exclusion, which raised such a ferment in the latter end of the reign of king Charles the second. It is well known that the purport of this bill was to have set aside the king's brother and presumptive heir, the duke of York, from the succession, on the score of his being a papist; that it passed the house of commons, but was rejected by the lords; the king having also declared beforehand, that he never would be brought to consent to it. And from this transaction we may collect two things: 1. That the crown was universally acknowledged to be hereditary; and the inheritance indefeasible unless by parliament: else it had been needless to prefer such a bill. 2. That the parliament had a power to have defeated the inheritance: else such a bill had been ineffectual. The commons acknowledged the hereditary right then subsisting; and the lords did not dispute the power, but merely the propriety, of an exclusion. However, as the bill took no effect, king James the second succeeded to the throne of his ancestors; and might have enjoyed it during the remainder of

his life, but for his own infatuated conduct, which (with other concurring circumstances) brought on the revolution in 1688,

The true ground and principle, upon which that memorable event proceeded, was an entirely new case in politics, which had never before happened in our history; the abdication of the reigning monarch, and the vacancy of the throne thereupon. It was not a defeazance of the right of succession, and a new limitation of the crown, by the king and both houses of parliament: it was the act of the nation alone, upon a conviction that there was no king in being. For in a full assembly of the lords and commons, met in a convention upon the supposition of this vacancy, both housesy came to this resolution; "that king James the second, having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people; and, by the advice of jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws; and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom; has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant." Thus ended at once, by this sudden and unexpected vacancy of the throne, the old line of succession; which from the conquest had lasted above six hundred years, and from the union of the heptarchy in king Egbert almost nine hundred. The facts themselves thus appealed to, the king's endeavour to subvert the constitution by breaking the original contract, his violation of the fundamental laws, and his withdrawing himself out of the kingdom, were evident and notorious; and the consequences drawn from these facts (namely, that they amounted to an abdication of the government; which abdication did not affect only the person of the king himself, but also all his heirs, and rendered the throne absolutely and completely vacant) it belonged to our ancestors to determine, For, whenever a question arises between the society at large and any magistrate vested with powers originally delegated by that society, it must be decided by the voice of the society itself:

there is not upon earth any other tribunal to resort to. And that these consequences were fairly deduced from these facts, pur ancestors have solemnly determined, in a full parliamentary

y Com. Journ. 7 Feb. 1688.

convention, representing the whole society. The reasons upon which they decided may be found at large in the parliamentary proceedings of the times; and may be matter of instructive amusement for us to comtemplate, as a speculative point of history. But care must be taken not to carry this inquiry farther, than merely for instruction or amusement. The idea, that the consciences of posterity were concerned in the rectitude of their ancestor's decisions, gave birth to those dangerous political heresies, which so long distracted the state, but at length are all happily extinguished. I, therefore, rather choose to consider this great political measure upon the solid footing of authority, than to reason in it's favour from it's justice, moderation, and expedience: because that might imply a right of dissenting or revolting from it, in case we should think it to have been unjust, oppressive, or inexpedient. Whereas, our ancestors having most indisputably a competent jurisdiction to decide this great and important question, and having in fact decided it, it is now become our duty at this distance of time to acquiesce in their determination; being born under that establishment which was built upon this foundation, and obliged by every tie, religious as well as civil, to maintain it.

But, while we rest this fundamental transaction, in point of authority, upon grounds the least liable to cavil, we are bound both injustice and gratitude to add, that it was conducted with a temper and moderation which naturally arose from it's equity;

that, however it might in some respects go beyond the letter of our antient laws, (the reason of which will more fully appear hereafterz) it was agreeable to the spirit of our constitution, and the rights of human nature; and that though in other points (owing to the peculiar circumstances of things and persons,) it was not altogether so perfect as might have been wished, yet from thence a new aera commenced, in which the bounds of prerogative and liberty have been better defined, the principles of government more thoroughly examined and understood, and the rights of the subject more explicitly guarded by legal provisions, than in any other period of the English history. In particular, it is

z See Chap. 7.

worthy observation, that the convention, in this their judgment, avoided with great wisdom the wild extremes into which the visionary theories of some zealous republicans would have led them. They held, that this misconduct of king James amounted to an endeavour to subvert the constitution; and not to an actual subversion, or total dissolution, of the government, according to the principles of Mr. Locke:a which would have reduced the society almost to a state of nature; would have levelled all distinctions of honour, rank, offices, and property; would have annihilated the sovereign power, and in consequence have repealed all positive laws; and would have left the people at liberty to have erected a new system of state upon a new foundation of polity. They, therefore, very prudently voted it to amount to no more than an abdication of the government, and a consequent vacancy of the throne; whereby, the government was allowed to subsist, though the executive magistrate was gone, and the kingly office to remain, though king James was no longer king.b And thus the constitution was kept entire; which, upon every sound principle of government, must otherwise have fallen to pieces, had so principal and constituent a part as the royal authority been abolished, or even suspended,

This single postulatum, the vacancy of the throne, being once established, the rest that was then done followed almost of course. For, if the throne be at any time vacant, (which may happen by other means besides that of abdication; as if all the royal blood should fail, without any successor appointed by parliament;) if, I say, a vacancy by any means whatsoever, should happen, the right of disposing of this vacancy seems naturally to result to the lords and commons, the trustees and representatives of the nation. For there are no other hands in which it can so properly be intrusted; and there is a necessity of it's being intrusted somewhere, else the whole frame of government must be dissolved and perish. The lords and commons having, therefore, determined this main fundamental article, that there was a vacancy of the throne, they proceeded to fill up that vacancy in such manner as they judged the most proper. And this was done by their

a On Gov. p. 2. c. 19. b Law of Forfeit, 113, 119.

declaration of 12 February, 1688,c in the following manner;

that William and Mary, prince and princess of Orange, be, and be declared king and queen, to hold the crown and royal dignity during their lives, and the life of the survivor of them; and that the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in, and executed by, the said prince of Orange, in the names of the said prince and princess, during their joint lives: and after their deceases the said crown and royal dignity to be to the heirs of the body of the said princess; and for default of such issue, to the princess Anne of Denmark and the heirs of her body; and for default of such issue, to the heirs of the body of the said prince of Orange."

Perhaps, upon the principles before established, the convention might (if they pleased) have vested the regal dignity in a family entirely new, and strangers to the royal blood: but they were too well acquainted with the benefits of hereditary succession, and the influence which it has by custom over the minds of the people, to depart any farther from the antient line than temporary necessity and self-preservation required. They therefore settled the crown, first on king William and queen Mary, king James's eldest daughter, for their joint lives: then on the survivor of them; and then on the issue of queen Mary: upon failure of such issue, it was limited to the princess Anne, king James's second daughter, and her issue; and lastly, on failure of that, to the issue of king William, who was the grandson of Charles the first, and nephew as well as son-in-law of king James the second, being the son of Mary, his eldest sister. This settlement included all the protestant posterity of king Charles I, except such other issue as king James might at any time have, which was totally omitted through fear of a popish succession. And this order of succession took effect accordingly.

These three princes, therefore, king William, queen Mary, and queen Anne, did not take the crown by hereditary right or descent, but by way of donation or purchase, as the lawyers call it; by which they mean any method of acquiring an estate

c Com. Journ. 12 Feb. 1688.

otherwise than by descent. The new settlement did not merely consist in excluding king James, and the person pretended to be prince of Wales, and then suffering the crown to descend in the old hereditary channel: for the usual course of descent was in some instances broken through; and yet the convention still kept it in their eye, and paid a great, though not total, regard to it. Let us see how the succession would have stood, if no abdication had happened, and king James had left no other issue than his two daughters queen Mary and queen Anne. It would have stood thus: queen Mary and her issue; queen Anne and her issue; king William and his issue. But we may remember, that queen Mary was only nominally queen, jointly with her husband king William, who alone had the regal power; and king William was personally preferred to queen Anne, though his issue was postponed to hers. Clearly, therefore, these princes were successively in possession of the crown by a title different from the usual course of descent.

It was towards the end of king William's reign, when all hopes of any surviving issue from any of these princes died with the duke of Gloucester, that the king and parliament thought it necessary again to exert their power of limiting and appointing the succession, in order to prevent another vacancy of the throne; which must have ensued upon their deaths, as no farther provision was made at the revolution, than for the issue of queen Mary, queen Anne, and king William. The parliament had previously, by the statute of 1 W. and M. st. 2. c. 2, enacted, that every person who should be reconciled to, or hold communion with, the see of Rome, should profess the popish religion, or should marry a papist, should be excluded, and for ever incapable to inherit, possess, or enjoy the crown; and that in such case, the people should be absolved from their allegiance, and the crown should descend to such persons, being protestants, as would have inherited the same, in case the person so reconciled, holding communion, professing, or marrying, were naturally dead. To act, therefore, consistently with themselves, and at the same time pay as much regard to the old hereditary line as their former resolutions would admit, they turned their eyes on the princess Sophia, electress and dutchess dowager of Hanover,

the most accomplished princess of her age.c For, upon the impending extinction of the protestant posterity of Charles the first, the old law of regal descent directed them to recur to the descendants of James the first; and the princess Sophia, being the youngest daughter of Elizabeth queen of Bohemia, who was the daughter of James the first, was the nearest of the antient blood royal, who was not incapacitated by professing the popish religion. On her, therefore, and the heirs of her body, being protestants, the remainder of the crown, expectant on the death of king William and queen Anne without issue, was settled by statute 12 and 13 W. III. c. 2. And at the same time it was enacted, that whosoever should hereafter come to the possession of the crown, should join in the communion of the church of England, as bylaw established.

This is the last limitation of the crown that has been made by parliament; and these several actual limitations, from the time of Henry IV to the present, do clearly prove the power of the king and parliament to new-model or alter the succession. And indeed it is now again made highly penal to dispute it: for by the statute 6 Ann. c. 7, it is enacted, that if any person maliciously, advisedly, and directly, shall maintain by writing or printing, that the kings of this realm, with the authority of parliament, are not able to make laws to bind the crown and the descent thereof, he shall be guilty of high treason, or if he maintains the same by only preaching, teaching, or advised speaking, he shall incur the penalties of a praemunire.

The princess Sophia dying before queen Anne, the inheritance thus limited descended on her son and heir king George the first; and, having on the death of the queen taken effect in his person, from him it descended to his late majesty king George the second; and from him to his grandson and heir, our present gracious sovereign, king George the third.

c Sandford in his genealogical history, published A. D. 1677, speaking (page 535) of the princesses Elizabeth, Louisa, and Sophia, daughters of the queen of Bohemia, says, the first was reputed the most learned, the second the greatest artist, and the last one of the most accomplished ladies in Europe.

Hence it is easy to collect, that the title to the crown is at present hereditary, though not quite so absolutely hereditary as formerly: and the common stock or ancestor, from whom the descent must be derived, is also different. Formerly, the common stock was king Egbert; then William the conqueror; afterwards, in James the first's time, the two common stocks united, and so continued till the vacancy of the throne in 1688: now it is the princess Sophia, in whom the inheritance was vested by the new king and parliament. Formerly, the descent was absolute, and the crown went to the next heir without any restriction:

but now, upon the new settlement, the inheritance is conditional;

being limited to such heirs only, of the body of the princess Sophia, as are protestant members of the church of England, and are married to none but protestants.

And in this due medium consists, I apprehend, the true constitutional notion of the right of succession to the imperial crown of these kingdoms. The extremes, between which it steers, are each of them equally destructive of those ends for which societies were formed and are kept on foot. Where the magistrate, upon every succession, is elected by the people, and may, by the express provision of the laws, be deposed (if not punished) by his subjects, this may sound like the perfection of liberty, and look well enough when delineated on paper; but in practice will be ever productive of tumult, contention, and anarchy. And, on the other hand, divine indefeasible hereditary right, when coupled with the doctrine of unlimited passive obedience, is surely, of all constitutions, the most thoroughly slavish and dreadful. But when such an hereditary right, as our laws have created and vested in the royal stock, is closely interwoven with those liberties, which, we have seen in a former chapter, are equally the inheritance of the subject; this union will form a constitution, in theory the most beautiful of any, in practice the most approved, and, I trust, in duration the most permanent. It was the duty of an expounder of our laws to lay this constitution before the student in it's true and genuine light; it is the duty of every good Englishman to understand, to revere, to defend it.

CHAPTER THE FOURTH.

OF THE KING'S ROYAL FAMILY.1

THE first and most considerable branch of the king's royal family, regarded by the laws of England, is the queen.

The queen of England is either queen regent, queen consort, or queen dowager. The queen regent, regnant, or sovereign, is she who holds the crown in her own right; as the first (and perhaps the second) queen Mary, queen Elizabeth, and queen Anne; and such a one has the same powers, prerogatives, rights, dignities, and duties, as if she had been a king. This was observed in the entrance of the last chapter, and is expressly declared by statute 1 Mar. I. st. 3. c. 1. But the queen consort is the wife of the reigning king; and she, by virtue of her marriage, is participant of divers prerogatives above other women.a

And, first, she is a public person, exempt and distinct from the king; and not, like other married women, so closely connected as to have lost all legal or separate existence so long as the marriage continues. For the queen is of ability to purchase lands, and to convey them, to make leases, to grant copyholds, and to do other acts of ownership, without the concurrence

a Finch. L. 86.

1. The fundamental principle of the American Constitutions and governments, being the perfect equality of rights, there was no room to admit any thing therein, that should bear the most distant resemblance to the subject of this chapter.

of her lord; which no other married woman can do;b a privilege as old as the Saxon aera.c She is also capable of taking a grant from the king, which no other wife is from her husband;

and in this particular she agrees with the Augusta, or piissima regina conjux divi imperatoris of the Roman laws; who, according to Justinian,d was equally capable of making a grant to, and receiving one from, the emperor. The queen of England hath separate courts and officers distinct from the king's, not only in matters of ceremony, but even of law; and her attorney and solicitor general are entitled to a place within the bar of his majesty's courts, together with the king's counsel.e She may likewise sue and be sued alone, without joining her husband. She may also have a separate property in goods as well as lands, and has a right to dispose of them by will. In short, she is in all legal proceedings looked upon as a feme sole, and not as a feme covert; as a single, not as a married woman.f For which the reason given by sir Edward Coke is this; because the wisdom of the common law would not have the king (whose continual care and study is for the public, and circa ardua regni) to be troubled and disquieted on account of his wife's domestic affairs; and, therefore, it vests in the queen a power of transacting her own concerns, without the intervention of the king as if she was an unmarried woman.

The queen hath also many exemptions, and minute prerogatives. For instance: she pays no toll;g nor is she liable to any amercement in any court.h But, in general, unless where the law has expressly declared her exempted, she is upon the same footing with other subjects; being to all intents and purposes the king's subject, and not his equal in like manner as, in the imperial law, "Augusta legibus soluta non est."i

The queen hath also some pecuniary advantages, which form her a distinct revenue: as, in the first place, she is entitled to an antient perquisite called queen-gold, or durum reginae; which

b 4 Rep. 23.

c Seld. Jan. Angl. 1. 42.

d Cod, 5, 16. 26.

e Seld. tit. hon. 1, 6, 7.

f Finch. L. 86. Co. Litt. 133. g Co. Litt. 133. h Finch. L. 185. i Ff 1, 3, 31.

is a royal revenue, belonging to every queen consort during her marriage with the king, and due from every person who hath made a voluntary offering or fine to the king, amounting to ten marks or upwards, for and in consideration of any privileges, grants, licences, pardons, or other matter of royal favour conferred upon him by the king: and it is due in the proportion of one tenth part more, over and above the entire offering or fine made to the king: and becomes an actual debt of record to the queen's majesty by the mere recording of the fine.k As if an hundred marks of silver be given to the king for liberty to take in mortmain, or to have a fair, market, park, chase, or free-warren: there the queen is entitled to ten marks in silver, or (what was formerly an equivalent denomination) to one mark in gold, by the name of queen-gold, or aurum reginae.l But no such payment is due for any aids or subsidies granted to the king in parliament or convocation; nor for fines imposed by courts on offenders, against their will; nor for voluntary presents to the king, without any consideration moving from him to the subject; nor for any sale or contract whereby the present revenues or possessions of the crown are granted away or diminished.m

The original revenue of our antient queens, before and soon after the conquest, seems to have consisted in certain reservations or rents out of the demesne lands of the crown, which were expressly appropriated to her majesty, distinct from the king. It is frequent in domesday-book, after specifying the rent due to the crown, to add likewise, the quantity of gold or other renders reserved to the queen.n These were frequently appropriated to particular purposes; to buy wool for her majesty's use,o to purchase oil for her lamps,p or to furnish her attire

k Pryn. Aur. Reg. 2.

l 12 Rep. 21. 4 Inst. 358

m Ibid. Pryn. 6. Madox. hist, exch. 242.

n Bedefordscire Manor. Lestone redd. per annum xxii lib. &c, ad opus reginae ii uncias auri. Herefordscire. In Lene, &c. consuetud. ut praepositus manerii veniente domina sua (regina) in maner, praesentaret ei xviii oras denar, ut esset ipsa laeto animo. Pryn Append. to Aur. Reg. 2, 3.

o Causa coadunandi lanam reginae. Domesd. ibid.

p Civitas Lundon. Protoleo ad lamp ad. reginae. (Mag. rot. pipp. temp. Hen. II. ibid.)

from head to foot,q which was frequently very costly, as one single robe in the fifth year of Henry II, stood the city of London in upwards of fourscore pounds.r A practice somewhat similar to that of the eastern countries, where whole cities and provinces were specifically assigned to purchase particular parts of the queen's apparel.s And, for a farther addition to her income, this duty of queen-gold is supposed to have been originally granted; those matters of grace and, favour, out of which it arose, being frequently obtained from the crown by the powerful intercession of the queen. There are traces of it's payment, though obscure ones, in the book of domesday and in the great pipe-roll of Henry the first.t In the reign of Henry the second the manner of collecting it, appears to have been well understood, and it forms a distinct head in the antient dialogue of the exchequeru written in the time of that prince, and usually attributed to Gervase of Tilbury. From that time downwards, it was regularly claimed and enjoyed by all the queen consorts of England, till the death of Henry VIII; though after the accession of the Tudor family the collecting of it seems to have been much neglected: and, there being no queen consort afterwards till the accession of James I, a period of near sixty years, it's very nature and quantity became then a matter of doubt: and, being referred by the king to the chief justices and chief baron, their report of it was so very unfavourable,v that his consort queen Anne (though she claimed it) yet never thought proper to exact it. In 1635, 11 Car. I, a time fertile of expedients for raising money upon dormant precedents in our old records (of

q Vicecomes Berkescire, xvi I. pro cappa reginae. (Mag. rot. pip. 19 .... 22 Hen. II. ibid.) Civitas Lund. cordubanario reginae xx s. (Mag. rot. 2 Hen. II. Madox hist. exch. 419.)

r Pro roba ad opus reginae, quater xx l. & vi s. viii. d. (Mag. rot. 5 Hen. II. ibid. 250.)

s Solere aiunt barbaros reges Persarum ac Syrorum .... uxoribus civitates attribuere, hoc mado; haec civitas mulieri redimiculum praebeat, haec in collum, haec in crimes, &c. (Cic. in Verrem, lib. 3. cap. 33.)

t See Maddox Disceptat. epistolar, 74. Pryn. Aur. Reg. Append. 5.

u Lib. 2. c. 26.

v Mr. Prynne, with some appearance of reason, insinuates, that their researches were very superficial. (Aur. Reg. 125.

which ship-money was a fatal instance) the king, at the petition of his queen Henrietta Maria, issued out his writw for levying it; but afterwards purchased it of his consort at the price often thousand pounds; finding it, perhaps, too trifling and troublesome to levy. And when afterwards, at the restoration, by the abolition of the military tenures, and the fines that were consequent upon them, the little that legally remained of this revenue was reduced to almost nothing at all, in vain did Mr. Prynne, by a treatise which does honour to his abilities as a painful and judicious antiquary, endeavour to excite queen Catherine to revive this antiquated claim.

Another antient perquisite belonging to the queen consort, mentioned by all our old writers,x and therefore only, worthy notice, is this; that on the taking of a whale on the coasts, which is a royal fish, it shall be divided between the king and queen; the head only being the king's property, and the tall of it the queen's. "De sturgione observetur, quod rex illum habebit integrum: de balena vero sufficit, si rex habeat caput, et regina caudam." The reason of this whimsical division, as assigned by our antient records,y was, to furnish the queen's wardrobe with whalebone.

But farther: though the queen is in all respects a subject, yet, in point of the security of her life and person, she is put on the same footing with the king. It is equally treason (by the statute 25 Edw. III,) to compass or imagine the death of our lady the king's companion, as of the king himself: and to violate, or defile the queen consort, amounts to the same high crime; as well in the person committing the fact, as in the queen herself, if consenting. A law of Henry the eighthz made it treason also for any woman, who was not a virgin, to marry the king without informing him thereof: but this law was soon after repealed: it trespassing too strongly, as well on natural justice, as female modesty. If, however, the queen be accused of any species of treason, she shall (whether consort or dowa-

w 19 Rym. Foel. 721.

x Bracton. l. 3. c. 3. Britton, c. 17. Flet. l. I. c. 45 and 46.

y Pryn. Aur. Reg. 127. z Stat. 33. Hen. VIII. c. 21.

ger be tried by the peers of parliament, as queen Ann Boleyn was in 28 Hen. VIII.

The husband of a queen regnant, as prince George of Denmark was to queen Anne, is her subject; and may be guilty of high treason against her: but, in the instance of conjugal infidelity, he is not subjected to the same penal restrictions. For which the reason seems to be, that, if a queen consort is unfaithful to the royal bed, this may debase or bastardize the heirs to the crown; but no such danger can be consequent on the infidelity of the husband to a queen regnant.

A queen dowager is the widow of the king, and as such enjoys most of the privileges belonging to her as queen consort. But it is not high treason to conspire her death; or to violate her chastity, for the same reason as was before alledged, because the succession to the crown is not thereby endangered. Yet Still, pro dignitate regali, no man can marry a queen dowager without special licence from the king, on pain of forfeiting his lands and goods. This sir Edward Cokea tells us was enacted in parliament in 6 Hen. VI, though the statute be not in print. But she, though an alien born, shall still be entitled to dower after the king's demise, which no other alien is.b A queen dowager, when married again to a subject, doth not lose her regal dignity, as peeresses dowager do their peerage when they marry commoners. For Catherine, queen dowager of Henry V, though she married a private gentleman, Owen ap Meredith ap Theodore, commonly called Owen Tudor; yet, by the name of Katherine queen of England, maintained an action against the bishop of Carlisle. And so, the queen dowager of Navarre marrying with Edmond earl of Lancaster, brother to king Edward the first, maintained an action of dower (after the death of her second husband) by the name of queen of Navarre.c

The prince of Wales, or heir apparent to the crown, and also his royal consort, and the princess royal, or eldest daughter

a 2 Inst. 18. See Riley's Plac. Parl. 72. b Co. Litt. 31. c 3 Inst. 50.

of the king, are likewise peculiarly regarded by the laws. For, by statute 25 Edw. III, to compass or conspire the death of the the former, or to violate the chastity of either of the latter, are as much high treason as to conspire the death of the king, or violate the chastity of the queen. And this upon the same reason, as was before given; because the prince of Wales is next in succession to the crown, and to violate his wife might taint the blood royal with bastardy: and the eldest daughter of the king is also alone inheritable to the crown, on failure of issue male, and therefore more respected by the laws than any of her younger sisters; insomuch that upon this, united with other (feodal) principles, while our military tenures were in force, the king might levy an aid for marrying his eldest daughter, and her only. The heir apparent to the crown is usually made prince of Wales and earl of Chester, by special creation, and investiture; but being the king's eldest son, he is by inheritance duke of Cornwall, without any new creation.d

The rest of the royal family may be considered in two different lights, according to the different senses in which the term, royal family, is used. The larger sense includes all those, who are by any possibility inheritable to the crown. Such, before the revolution, were all the descendants of William the conqueror; who had branched into an amazing extent, by intermarriages with the antient nobility. Since the revolution and act of settlement, it means the protestant issue of the princess Sophia; now comparatively few in number, but which, in process of time, may possibly be as largely diffused. The more confined sense includes only those, who are within a certain degree of propinquity to the reigning prince, and to whom, therefore, the law pays an extraordinary regard and respect: but, after that degree is past, they fall into the rank of ordinary subjects, and are seldom considered any farther, unless called to the succession upon failure of the nearer lines. For, though colateral consanguinity is regarded indefinitely, with respect to inheritance or succession, yet it is, and can only be regarded within some certain limits, in any other respect, by the natural constitution of things and the dictates of positive law.e

d 8 Rep. 1. Seld. tit. of hon. 2, 5. e See essay on collateral consanguinity, in Law-tracts, 4to. Oxon. 1771.

The younger sons and daughters of the king, and other branches of the royal family, who are not in the immediate line of succession, were, therefore, little farther regarded by the antient law, than to give them, to a certain degree, precedence before all peers and public officers, as well ecclesiastical as temporal. This is done by the statute 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10, which enacts that no person, except the king's children, shall presume to sit or have place at the side of the cloth of estate in the parliament chamber; and that certain great officers therein named, shall have precedence above all dukes, except only such as shall happen to be the king's son, brother, uncle, nephew (which sir Edward Cokef explains to signify grandson or nepos) or brother's or sister's son. Therefore, after these degrees are past, peers or others of the blood royal, are intitled to no place or precedence except what belongs to them by their personal rank or dignity. Which made sir Edward Walker complain,g that by the hasty creation of prince Rupert to be duke of Cumberland, and of the earl of Lenox to be duke of that name, previous to the creation of king Charles's second son, James, to be duke of York, it might happen that their grandsons would have precedence of the grandsons of the duke of York.

Indeed, under the description of the king's children his grandsons are held to be included, without having recourse to sir Edward Coke's interpretation of nephew: and, therefore, when his late majesty king George II created his grandson Edward, the second son of Frederick prince of Wales deceased, duke of York, and referred it to the house of lords to settle his place and precedence, they certifiedh that he ought to have place next to the late duke of Cumberland the then king's youngest son; and that he might have a seat on the left hand of the cloth of estate. But when, on the accession of his present majesty, those royal personages ceased to take place as the children and ranked only as the brother and uncle, of the king, they also left their seats on the side of the cloth of estate: so that when the duke of Gloucester, his majesty's second brother, took his seat in the house of peers,i he was placed on the upper end of the earl's bench (on

f 4 Inst. 362. h Lords' Journ. 21. Apr. 1760.

g Tracts, p. 301. i Ibid. 10 Jan. 1765.

which the dukes usually sit) next to his royal highness the duke of York. And in 1718, upon a question referred to all the judges by king George I, it was resolved by the opinion of ten against the other two, that the education and care of all the king's grandchildren while minors, did belong of right to his majesty as king of this realm, even during their father's life.k But they all agreed, that the care and approbation of their marriages, when grown up, belonged to the king their grandfather. And the judges have more recently concurred in opinion,l that this care and approbation extend also to the presumptive heir of the crown; though to what other branches of the royal family the same did extend they did not find precisely determined. The most frequent instances of the crown's interposition go no farther than nephews and nieces;m but examples are not wanting of it's reaching to more distant collaterals.n And the statute 6 Henry VI before mentioned, which prohibits the marriage of a queen dowager without the consent of the king, assigns this reason for it: "because the disparagement of the queen shall give greater comfort and example to other ladies of estate, who are of the blood royal, more lightly to disparage themselves."o Therefore, by the statute 28 Hen, VIII. c. 18. (repealed, among other statutes of treasons, by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12.) it was made high treason for any man to contract marriage with the king's children or reputed children, his sisters or aunts ex parte paterna, or the children of his brethren or sisters; being exactly the same degrees, to which precedence is allowed by the statute

k Fortesc. Al. 401, 440. l Lords' Journ. 28 Feb. 1772.

m See (besides the instances cited in Fortescue Aland) for brothers and sisters;

under king Edward III, 4 Rym. 392, 403, 411, 501, 508, 512, 549, 683 .... under Henry V, 9 Rym 710, 711, 741 .... under Edward IV, 11 Rym. 364, 565, 590, 601 .... under Henry VIII, 13 Rym. 249, 423..., under Edw. VI, 7 St. Tr. 3, 8. For nephews and nieces; under Henry III, 1 Rym. 852 .... under Edward I, 2 Rym. 489 .... under Edward III, 5 Rym. 561 .... under Richard II, 7 Rym. 264 .... under Richard III, 12 Rym. 232, 244 .... under Henry VIII, 15 Rym. 26, 31.

n To great nieces; under Edward II. 3 Rym. 575, 644. To first cousins; under Edward III, 5 Rym. 177. To second and third cousins; under Edward III, 5 Rym. 729 .... under Richard II, 7 Rym. 335 .... under Henry VI, 10 Rym. 322 .... under Henry VII, 12 Rym. 529 .... under queen Elizabeth, Camd. Ann. A. D. 1562. To fourth cousins; under Henry VII, 12 Rym. 329. To the blood-royal in general; under Richard II, 7 Rym. 787.

o Ril. plac. parl. 672.

31 Hen. VIII, before-mentioned. And now, by statute 12 Geo. III. c. 11, no descendant of the body of king George II, (other than the issue of princesses married into foreign families) is capable of contracting matrimony, without the previous consent of the king signified under the great seal; and any marriage contracted without such consent is void. Provided that such of the said descendants, as are above the age of twenty-five, may after a twelvemonth's notice given to the king's privy council, contract and solemnize marriage without the consent of the crown; unless both houses of parliament shall, before the expiration of the said year, expressly declare their disapprobation of such intended marriage. And all persons solemnizing, assisting, or being present at, any such prohibited marriage, shall incur the penalties of the statute of praemunire.

CHAPTER THE FIFTH.

OF THE COUNCILS BELONGING TO THE KING.

THE third point of view, in which we are to consider the king, is with regard to his councils. For, in order to assist him in the discharge of his duties, the maintenance of his dignity, and the exertion of his prerogative, the law hath assigned him a diversity of councils to advise with.1

1. The first of these is the high court of parliament, whereof we have already treated at large.2

1. "The president of the United States, shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officer's of the United States, whose appointments are not otherwise provided for by the constitution. He may likewise require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices." C. U. S. Art. 2.

The governor of Virginia shall, with the advice of a council of state, consisting of eight members, chosen by joint ballot of both houses of assembly, (two of whom are removed by joint ballot of both houses at the end of every three years, and are ineligible for the next three years,) exercise the executive powers of government, according to the laws of the common-wealth. C. V. Art. 9, 11.

2. Analogous thereto we may consider the congress of the United States, concerning whose powers, see Appendix, note D;

2. Secondly, the peers of the realm are, by their birth, hereditary counsellors of the crown,3 and may be called together by the king to impart their advice in all matters of importance to the realm, either in time of parliament, or, which hath been their principal use, when there is no parliament in being:a Accordingly, Bracton,b speaking of the nobility of his time, says they might properly be called "consules, a consulendo; reges enim tales sibi associant ad consulendum." And in our law booksc it is laid down, that peers are created for two reasons: 1. Ad consulendum, 2. Ad defendendum, regem: on which account the law gives them certain great and high privileges: such as freedom from arrests, &c. even when no parliament is sitting: because it intends, that they are always assisting the king with their counsel for the commonwealth, or keeping the realm in safety by their prowess and valour.

Instances of conventions of the peers, to advise the king, have been in former times very frequent; though now fallen into disuse, by reason of the more regular meetings of parliament. Sir Edward Coke,d gives us an extract of a record, 5 Hen. IV, concerning an exchange of lands between the king and the earl of Northumberland, wherein the value of each was agreed to be settled by advice of parliament (if any should be called before the feast of saint Lucia) or otherwise by advice of the grand council of peers which the king promises to assemble before the said feast, in case no parliament shall be called. Many other instances of this kind of meeting are to be found under our antient kings: though the formal method of convoking them had

a Co. Litt. 110. c 7 Rep. 34. 9 Rep. 49. 13 Rep. 96. b l. 1. c. 8. d I Inst. 110.

as also, the general assembly of the commonwealth, so far as relates to the affairs of the state; concerning which, see Appendix, note C, in the former part of this volume.

3. "The idea of hereditary legislators," [or counsellors] is as inconsistent as that of hereditary judges, or hereditary juries; and as absurd as an hereditary mathematician, or an hereditary wise

man; and as ridiculous as an hereditary poet laureat." Paine's

Rights of Man, Part I. p. 56. Albany, 1794.

been so long left off, that when king Charles I, in 1640, issued Out writs under the great seal to call a great council of all the peers of England to meet and attend his majesty at York, previous to the meeting of the long parliament, the earl of Clarendone mentions it as a new invention, not before heard of, that is, as he explains himself, so old, that it had not been practiced in some hundreds of years. But, though there had not so long before been an instance, nor has there been any since, of assembling them in so solemn a manner, yet, in cases of emergency, our princes have at several times thought proper to call for and consult as many of the nobility as could easily he got together: as was particularly the case with king James the second, after the landing of the prince of Orange; and with the prince of Orange himself, before he called that convention parliament, which afterwards called him to the throne.

Besides this general meeting, it is usually looked Upon to be the right of each particular peer of the realm to demand an audience of the king, and to lay before him, with decency and respect, such matters as he shall judge of importance to the public weal. And, therefore, in the reign of Edward II, it was made an article of impeachment in parliament against the two Hugh Spencers, father and son, for which they were banished the kingdom, that they, by their evil covin, would not suffer the great men of the realm, the king's good counsellors, to speak with the king, or to come near him; but only in the presence and hearing of the said Hugh the father and Hugh the son, or one of them, and at their will, and according to such things as pleased them."f

3. A third council belonging to the king, are, according to sir Edward Coke,g his judges of the courts of law, for law matters.4 And this appears frequently in our statutes, particularly

e Hist. b 2. g I Inst. 110.

f 4 Inst. 53.

4. The federal and state courts may, in some measure, be regarded in the same light: for it being the duty of the executive to

14 Edw. III. c. 5, and in other books of law. So that when the king's council is mentioned generally, it must be defined, particularised, and understood, secundum subjectam materiam: and, if the subject be of a legal nature, then by the king's council is understood his council for matters of law; namely, his judges. Therefore, when by statute 16 Ric. II. c. 5, it was made a high offence to import into this kingdom any papal bulles, or other processes from Rome; and it was enacted, that the offenders should be attached by their bodies, and brought before the king and his council to answer for such offence; here, by the expression of the king's council, were understood the king's judges of his courts of justice, the subject matter being legal: this being the general way of interpreting the word, council.h

4. But the principal council belonging to the king is his privy council, which is generally called, by way of eminence, the council.5 And this, according to Sir Edward Coke's description of it,i is a noble, honourable, and reverend assembly, of the king, and such as he wills to be of his privy council, in the king's court or palace. The king's will is the sole constituent of a privy counsellor; and this also regulates their number, which of antient time was twelve, or thereabouts. Afterwards, it increased to so large a number, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and dispatch; and, therefore, king Charles the second, in 1679, limited it to thirty: whereof fifteen were to be the principal officers of state, and those to be counsellors, virtute officii;

and the other fifteen were composed of ten lords and five commoners of the king's choosing.k But since that time the num-

h 3 Inst. 125. k Temple's Mem. part 3.

i 4 Inst. 53.

See that the laws are faithfully executed, it consequently belongs to that department to carry into execution the judgments of the courts. And these judgments may be considered as the advice of those courts to the federal, or state executive, respectively, what ought to be done, after a final discussion of the complaint before them.

5. See the note at the beginning of this chapter.

ber has been much augmented, and now continues indefinite (5). At the same time also, the antient office of lord president of the council was revived in the person of Anthony earl of Shaftsbury;

an officer, that by the statute of 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10, has precedence next after the lord chancellor and lord treasurer.

Privy counsellors are made by the king's nomination, without either patent or grant; and, on taking the necessary oaths, they become immediately privy counsellors during the life of the king that chooses them, but subject to removal at his discretion.

As to the qualifications of members to sit at this board: any natural born subject of England is capable of being a member of the privy council; taking the proper oaths for security of the government, and the test for security of the church. But, in order to prevent any persons under foreign attachments from insinuating themselves into this important trust, as happened in the reign of king William in many instances, it is enacted by the act of settlement,l that no person born out of the dominions of the crown of England, unless born of English parents, even though naturalized by parliament, shall be capable of being of the privy council.

The duty of a privy counsellor appears from the oath of office,m which consists of seven articles: 1. To advise the king according to the best of his cunning and discretion. 2. To advise

1 Stat. 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2. m 4 Inst. 54.

(5) "No inconvenience (according to professor Christian) arises from the extension of their numbers, as those only attend who are specially summoned for that particular occasion, upon which their advice and assistance are required. The cabinet council, as it is called, consists of those ministers of state who are more immediately in the king's confidence, and who are summoned to consult upon the arduous and important discharge of the executive authority." Christian. Here, also, any matters of importance which are to be submitted to the consideration of parliament, are usually first discussed, as I have been informed.

for the king's honour and good of the public, without partiality through affection, love, meed, doubt, or dread. 3. To keep the king's counsel secret. 4. To avoid corruption. 5. To help and strengthen the execution of what shall be there resolved. 6. To withstand all persons who would attempt the contrary. And, lastly, in general, 7. To observe, keep, and do all that a good and true counsellor ought to do to his sovereign lord.

The power of the privy council is to inquire into all offences against the government, and to commit the offenders to safe custody, in order to take their trial in some of the courts of law.6 But their jurisdiction herein is only to inquire, and not to punish:

and the persons committed by them are intitled to their habeas corpus by statute 16 Car. I. c. 10, as much as if committed by an ordinary justice of the peace. And, by the same statute, the court of star chamber, and the court of requests, both of which consisted of privy counsellors, were dissolved, and it was declared illegal for them to take cognizance of any matter of property, belonging to the subjects of this kingdom. But, in plantation or admiralty causes, which arise out of the jurisdiction of this kingdom; and in matters of lunacy or idiocy,n being a special flower of the prerogative; with regard to these, although they may

n 3 P. Wms. 108.

6. It is presumed that the power of commitment belongs exclusively to the judiciary department, in all cases where a prosecution is to be commenced on the part of the government: since no warrant can issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the person to be apprehended. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 6. And there is nothing in the constitution which warrants the supposition, that the executive department can either administer an oath, or grant a warrant for that purpose.

The act of 1785, V. L. c. 15, authorises the governor, with advice of the council, to apprehend and secure all suspicious persons, being the subjects of any foreign power, or state, who shall have made a declaration of war, or actually commenced hostilities against the United States, or from whom the president of the United States shall apprehend hostile designs against them, with a saving of the privileges of merchants, their families, agents or servants. 1794, c. 62. V. L.

eventually involve questions of extensive property, the privy council continues to have cognizance, being the court of appeal in such cases: or, rather the appeal lies to the king's majesty himself in council. Whenever also a question arises between two provinces in America or elsewhere, as concerning the extent of their charters and the like, the king in his council exercises original jurisdiction therein, upon the principles of feodal sovereignty. And so, likewise, when any person claims an island or a province, in the nature of a feodal principality, by grant from the king or his ancestors, the determination of that right belongs to his majesty in council; as was the case of the earl of Derby with regard to the Isle of Man in the reign of queen Elizabeth, and the earl of Cardigan and others, as representatives of the duke of Montague, with relation to the island of St. Vincent in 1764. But from all the dominions of the crown, excepting Great-Britain and Ireland, an appellate jurisdiction (in the last resort) is vested in the same tribunal; which usually exercises it's judicial authority in a committee of the whole privy council, who hear the allegations and proofs, and make their report to his majesty in council, by whom the judgment is finally given.

The privileges of privy counsellors,7 as such (abstracted from their honorary precedence)o consist principally in the security which the law has given them against attempts and conspiracies to destroy their lives. For, by statute 3 Hen. VII. c. 14, if any of the king's servants, of his household, conspire or imagine to take away the life of a privy counsellor, it is felony, though

o See page 405.

7. The senators of the United States have no privileges distinct from those of the members of the house of representatives: viz. an exemption from arrest during their attendance at their respective houses, and in going to, and returning from the same. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 6.

The constitution of Virginia is silent as to the subject of privilege;

but the act of 1788, c. 67, Edi. 1794, c. 66, exempts the persons of privy counsellors from arrest upon process in civil suits; but allows an execution against their bodies, in case an execution against their estate be returned unsatisfied.

nothing be done upon it. The reason of making this statute, sir Edward Cokep tells us, was, because such a conspiracy was, just before this parliament, made by some of king Henry the seventh's household servants, and great mischief was like to have ensued thereupon. This extends only to the king's menial servants. But the statute 9 Ann. c. 16, goes farther, and enacts, that any person that shall unlawfully attempt to kill, or shall unlawfully assault, and strike, or wound, any privy counsellor in the execution of his office, shall be a felon without benefit of clergy. This statute was made upon the daring attempt of the sieur Guiscard, who stabbed Mr. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, with a penknife, when under examination for high crimes in a committee of the privy council.

The dissolution of the privy council depends upon the king's pleasure: and he may, whenever he thinks proper, discharge any particular member, or the whole of it, and appoint another. By the common law, also, it was dissolved ipso facto by the king's demise; as deriving all it's authority from him. But now, to prevent the inconveniences of having no council in being at the accession of a new prince, it is enacted by statute 6 Ann. c. 7, that the privy council shall continue for six months after the demise of the crown, unless sooner determined by the successor.

p 3 Inst. 38.

CHAPTER THE SIXTH.

OF THE KING'S DUTIES.1

I PROCEED next to the duties, incumbent on. the king by our constitution; in consideration of which duties his dignity and prerogative are established by the laws of the land:

it being a maxim in the law, that protection and subjection are reciprocal.a And these reciprocal duties are what, I apprehend, were meant by the convention in 1688, when they declared that king James had broken the original contract between king and people. But, however, as the terms of that original contract were in some measure disputed, being alleged to exist principally in theory, and to be only deducible by reason and the rules of natural law; in which deduction different understandings might very considerably differ; it was, after the revolution, judged proper to declare these duties expressly, and to reduce

a 7 Rep. 5.

1, The duties of the president of the United States have been shortly discussed in the appendix to the former part of this volume, note D. The constitution requires that he shall take an oath, [to] "faithfully to execute his office; and that he will, to the best of his ability, preserve, protect, and defend, the constitution of the United States." And it declares it to be his duty to take care that the laws be faithfully executed. C. U. S. Art. 2.

The constitution of Virginia declares that the governor of the commonwealth shall, with the advice of the council of state, exercise the executive powers of government, according to the laws of the commonwealth; and shall not, under any pretence, exercise any power or prerogative by virtue of any law, statute, or custom of England. C. V. Art. 9. See also Appendix, note C.

that contract to a plain certainty. So that, whatever doubts might be formerly raised, by weak and scrupulous minds, about the existence of such an original contract, they must now entirely cease; especially with regard to every prince, who hath reigned since the year 1688.

The principal duty of the king is, to govern his people according to law.2 Nec regibus infinita aut libera potestas, was the constitution of our German ancestors on the continent.b And this is not only consonant to the principles of nature, of liberty, of reason, and of society, but has always been esteemed an express part of the common law of England, even when prerogative was at the highest. "The king," saith Bracton,c who wrote under Henry III, "ought not to be subject to man, but to God, and to the law; for the law maketh the king. Let the king, therefore, render to the law, what the law has vested in him with regard to others; dominion and power: for he is not truly king, where will and pleasure rules, and not the law." And again;d "the king also hath a superior, namely God, and also the law, by which he was made a king." Thus Bracton: and Fortescue also,e having first well distinguished between a monarchy absolutely and despotically regal, which is introduced by conquest and violence, and a political or civil monarchy, which arises from mutual consent; (of which last species he asserts the government of England to be) immediately lays it down as a principle, that "the king of England must rule his people ac

cording to the decrees of the laws thereof: insomuch that he is bound by an oath at his coronation to the observance and keeping of his own laws." But, to obviate all doubts and difficulties concerning this matter, it is expressly declared by statute 12 and 13 W. III, c. 2. "that the laws of England are the

birthright of the people thereof; and all the kings and queens who shall ascend the throne of this realm ought to administer the government of the same according to the said

b Tac. de mor. Germ. c. 7. c l. 1. c. 8.

d l. 2. c. 16. §. 3. e c. 9. and 34.

2. C. U. S. Art. 2, C. V. Art. 9, accordant, see the last note.

laws; and all their officers and ministers ought to serve them respectively according to the same: and, therefore, all the laws and statutes of this realm, for securing the established religion, and the rights and liberties of the people thereof, and all other laws and statutes of the same now in force, are ratified and confirmed accordingly."

And, as to the terms of the original contract between king and people, these I apprehend to be now couched in the coronation oath, which by the statute 1 W. and M. st. 1. e. 6, is to be administered to every king and queen, who shall succeed to the imperial crown of these realms, by one of the archbishops or bishops of the realm, in the presence of all the people; who on their parts do reciprocally take the oath of allegiance to the crown. This coronation oath is conceived in the following terms:3

3. The oath of the governor of Virginia, as prescribed by an ordinance of the convention which formed the constitution, is as follows: "I, A. B. elected governor of Virgina, by the representatives thereof, do solemnly promise and swear, that I will, to the best of my skill and judgment, execute the said office diligently and faithfully, according to law, without favour, affection, or partiality; that I will, to the utmost of my power, support, maintain, and defend the commonwealth of Virginia, and the CONSTITUTION of the same, and protect the people thereof in the secure enjoyment of all their rights, franchises, and privileges; and will constantly endeavour that the laws and ordinances of the commonwealth shall be duly observed, and that law, and justice, in mercy, be executed in all judgments. And, lastly, I do solemnly promise and swear, that I will peaceably and quietly resign the government to which I have been elected, at the several periods to which my continuance in the said office is, or shall be limited by law and the constitution. So help me God."* In May, 1799, an act passed prescribing the oath of fidelity and the oaths of certain public officers. By that act the governor's oath of office was changed, by omitting the words, "support, maintain, and defend the commonwealth of Virginia, and the constitution of the same." So soon did the legislature evince a desire to remove any possible opposition on the part of the executive to their own sovereign will. The oath has since undergone no alteration. V. L. 1794, c, 57. See also note 1, on this chapter,

* Revised Code, 1784, p. 36.

The archbishop or bishop shall say, "Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereto belonging, according to the statutes in parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same? .... The king or queen shall say, I solemnly promise

so to do .... Archbishop or bishop. Will you to your power

cause law and justice, in mercy, to be executed in all your judgments? .... King or queen. I will .... Archbishop or bishop.

Will you to the utmost of your power maintain the laws of God, the true profession of the gospel, and the protestant reformed religion established by the law? And will you preserve unto the bishops and clergy of this realm, and to the churches committed to their charge, all such rights and privileges as by law do or shall appertain unto them, or any of them? .... King or queen. All this I promise to do .... After

this the king or queen, laying his or her hand upon the holy gospels, shall say. The things which I have here before promised I will perform and keep: so help me God: and then shall kiss the book."

This is the form of the coronation oath, as is now prescribed by our laws; the principal articles of which appear to be at least as antient as the mirror of justices,f and even as the time of Bracton;g but the wording of it was changed at the revolution, because (as the statute alleges) the oath itself has been framed in doubtful words and expressions, with relation to antient laws and constitutions at this time unknown.h How-

f cap. 1. §. 2.

g l. 3. tr. 1. c. 9.

h In the old folio abridgment of the statutes, printed by Lettou and Machlinia, in the reign of Edward IV. (penes me) there is preserved a copy of the old coronation oath; which, as the book is extremely scarce, I will here transcribe. Ceo est le serement que le roy jurre a soun coronement: que il gardera et mei tenera lez droitez et lez franchisez de seynt esglise grauntez auncienment dez droitez roys christiens d'Engletere, et quil gardera toutez sez terrez honoures et dignites droiturelx et franks del coron du roialme d'Engletere en tout maner dentier te sanz null maner damenusement, et lez droitez dispergez dilapidez ou perduz de la corone a soun poiair reappeller en launcien estate, et quil gardera le peas de seynt esglise et al clergie et at people de bon accorde, et quit face faire en toutez sez

jugementez owel et droit justice oue discretion et misericorde, et quil grauntera a

ever, in what form soever it be conceived, this is most indisputably a fundamental and original express contract; though doubt. less the duty of protection is impliedly as much incumbent on the sovereign before coronation as after: in the same manner as allegiance to the king becomes the duty of the subject immediately on the descent of the crown, before he has taken the oath of allegiance, or whether he ever takes it at all. This reciprocal duty of the subject will be considered in it's proper place. At present we are only to observe, that in the king's part of this original contract are expressed all the duties that a monarch can owe to his people: viz. to govern according to law; to execute judgment in mercy; and to maintain the established religion. And, with respect to the latter of these three branches, we may farther remark, that by the act of union, 5 Ann. c. 8, two preceding statutes are recited and confirmed; the one of the parliament of Scotland, the other of the parliament of England: which enact; the former, that every king at his accession shall take and subscribe an oath, to preserve the protestant religion and presbyterian church government in Scotland; the latter, that at his coronation he shall take and subscribe a similar oath, to preserve the settlement of the church of England within England, Ireland, Wales, and Berwick, and the territories thereunto belonging.

tenure lez leyes et custumez du roialme, et a soun poiar lez face garder et affirmer que lez gentez du people avont faitez et estiez, et lez malveys leyz et custumes de tout oustera, et ferme peas et establie al people de soun roialine en ceo garde esgardera a soun poiair: come Dieu luy aide. (Tit. sacramentum regis. fol. m. ij.) Prynne has also given us a copy of the coronation-oaths of Richard II, (Signal Loyalty. II. 246.) Edward IV, (ibid. 251.) James I, and Charles I, (ibid. 269.)

CHAPTER THE SEVENTH.

OF THE KING'S PREROGATIVE.

IT was observed in a former chapter,a that one of the principal bulwarks of civil liberty, or (in other words) of the British constitution, was the limitation of the king's prerogative by bounds so certain and notorious, that it is impossible he should ever exceed them, without the consent of the people, on the one hand; or without, on the other, a violation of that original contract, which in all states, impliedly, and in ours most expressly, subsists between the prince and the subject. It will now be our business to consider this prerogative minutely; to demonstrate it's necessity in general; and to mark out in the most important instances it's particular extent and restrictions: from which considerations this conclusion will evidently follow, that the powers, which are vested in the crown by the laws of England, are necessary for the support of society; and do not intrench any farther on our natural liberties, than is expedient for the maintenance of our civil.

There cannot be a stronger proof of that genuine freedom, which is the boast of this age and country, than the power of discussing and examining, with decency and respect, the limits of the king's prerogative. A topic, that in some former ages was thought too delicate and sacred to be profaned by the pen of a subject.1 It was ranked among the arcana imperii: and,

Chap. 1. p. 141.

I. The title "prerogative" it is presumed was annihilated in America with the kingly government, It will however be of use to the student to observe in the course of this chapter how many of the

like the mysteries of the bona dea, was not suffered to be pried into by any but such as were initiated in it's service: because perhaps the exertion of the one, like the solemnities of the other, would not bear the inspection of a rational and sober inquiry .... The glorious queen Elizabeth herself made no scruple to direct her parliaments to abstain from discoursing of matters of state;b

and it was the constant language of this favourite princess and her ministers, that even that august assembly "ought not to deal, to judge, or to meddle with her majesty's prerogative royal."c And her successor, king James the first, who had imbibed high notions of the divinity of regal sway, more than once laid it down in his speeches, that, "as it is atheism and blasphemy in a creature to dispute what the deity may do, so it is presumption and sedition in a subject to dispute what a king may do in the height of his power; good Christians, he adds, will be content with God's will, revealed in his word;

and good subjects will rest in the king's will, revealed in his law."d

But, whatever might be the sentiments of some of our princes, this was never the language of our antient constitution and laws. The limitation of the regal authority was a first and essential principle in all the Gothic systems of government established in Europe; though gradually driven out and overborne, by violence and chicane, in most of the kingdoms on the continent. We have seen, in the preceding chapter, the sentiments of Bracton and Fortescue, at the distance of two centuries from each other. And Sir Henry Finch, under Charles the first, after the

b Dewes. 479. c Ibid.. 645. d King James' Works, 557, 531.

flowers of the crown, which were formerly stiled prerogatives, have been rejected as nuisances, by our own constitutions; or, where necessarily retained, have been confided to safer hands than those of a single hereditary executive magistrate.

The governor of Virginia shall not under any pretence exercise any power or prerogative by virtue of any law, statute, or custom of England. C. V. Art. 9.

lapse of two centuries more, though he lays down the law of prerogative in very strong and emphatical terms, yet qualifies it with a general restriction, in regard to the liberties of the people. "The king hath a prerogative in all things, that are not injurious to the subject; for in them all, it must be remembered, that the king's prerogative stretcheth not to the doing of any wrong."e Nihil enim aliud potest rex, nisi id solum quod de jure potest.f And here it may be some satisfaction to remark, how widely the civil law differs from our own, with regard to the authority of the laws over the prince, or (as a civilian would rather have expressed it) the authority of the prince over the laws. It is a maxim of the English law, as we have seen from Bracton, that "rex debet esse sub lege, quia lex facit regem;'' the imperial law will tell us, that "in omnibus imperatoris excipitur fortuna; cui ipsas leges Deus subject." We shall not long hesitate to which of them to give the preference, as most conducive to those ends for which societies were framed, and are kept together; especially as the Roman lawyers themselves seem to be sensible of the unreasonableness of their own constitution. "Decet tamen principem," says Paulus, "servare leges, quibus ipse solutus est."h This is at once laying down the principle of despotic power, and at the same time acknowledging its absurdity.

By the word prerogative we usually understand that special pre-eminence, which the king hath, over and above all other persons, and out of the ordinary course of the common law, in right of his regal dignity. It signifies, in it's etymology, (from prae and rogo) something that is required or demanded before, or in preference to, all others. And, hence, it follows, that it must be in it's nature singular and eccentrical, that it can only be applied to those rights and capacities which the king enjoys alone, in contradistinction to others, and not to those which he enjoys in common with any of his subjects: for if once any one prerogative of the crown could be held in common with the subject, it would cease to be prerogative any longer. And, there-

e Finch L. 84, 85. g Nov. 105. Sec. 2.

f Bracton, l. 3. tr. 1. c. 9. h Ff. 32. 1. 23.

fore, Finchi lays it down as a maxim, that the prerogative is that law, in case of the king, which is law in no case of the subject.2

Prerogatives are either direct or incidental. The direct are such positive substantial parts of the royal character and authority, as are rooted in and spring from the king's political person, considered merely by itself, without reference to any other extrinsic circumstance; as, the right of sending embassadors, of creating peers, and of making war or peace. But such prerogatives as are incidental bear always a relation to something else, distinct from the king's person; and are indeed only exceptions, in favour of the crown, to those general rules that are established for the rest of the community: such as, that no costs shall be recovered against the king; that the king can never be a joint-tenant; and that his debt shall be preferred before a debt to any of his subjects, These, and an infinite number of other instances, will be better understood, when we come regularly to consider the rules themselves, to which these incidental prerogatives are exceptions. And, therefore, we will at present, only dwell upon the king's substantive or direct prerogatives.

These substantive or direct prerogatives may again be divided into three kinds: being such as regard, first, the king's royal character; secondly, his royal authority; and lastly, his royal income. These are necessary, to secure reverence to his person, obedience to his commands, and an affluent supply for the ordinary expences of government; without all of which it is impossible to maintain the executive power in due independence and vigour. Yet, in every branch of this large and extensive dominion, our free constitution has interposed such seasonable checks and restrictions, as may curb it from trampling on those liberties, which it was meant to secure and establish. The i Finch. L. 85.

2. This definition of prerogative is enough to make a citizen of the United States shudder at the recollection that he was born under a government in which such doctrines are received as catholic: and, must at the same time fill the heart of every true friend to his country with joy and gratitude for that deliverance, which, under the aus

pices of an Almighty Providence, has been happily atchieved by us,

enormous weight of prerogative, if left to itself, (as in arbitrary governments it is) spreads havoc and destruction among all the inferior movements: but, when balanced and regulated (as with us) by it's proper counterpoise, timely and judiciously applied, it's operations are then equable and certain, it invigorates the whole machine, and enables every part to answer the end of it's construction.

In the present chapter we shall only consider the two first of these divisions, which relate to the king's political character and authority: or, in other words, his dignity and regal power; to which last, the name of prerogative is frequently narrowed and confined. The other division, which forms the royal revenue, will require a distinct examination, according to the known distribution of the feodal writers, who distinguish the royal prerogatives into the majora and minora regalia, in the latter of which classes the rights of the revenue are ranked. For, to use their own words, "majora regalia imperii prae-eminentiam spectant; minora vero ad commodum pecuniarium immediate attinent; et haec proprie fiscalia sunt, et ad jus fisci pertinent."k

First, then, of the royal dignity. Under every monarchical establishment, it is necessary to distinguish the prince from his subjects, not only by the outward pomp and decorations of majesty, but also by ascribing to him certain qualities, as inherent in his royal capacity, distinct from and superior to those of any other Individual in the nation. For, though a philosophical mind will consider the royal person merely as one man appointed by mutual consent to preside over many others, and will pay him that reverence and duty which the principles of society demand, yet the mass of mankind will be apt to grow insolent and refractory, if taught to consider their prince as a man of no greater perfection than themselves. The law, therefore, ascribes to the king, in his high political character, not only large powers and emoluments, which form his prerogative and revenue, but likewise certain attributes of a great and transcendent nature; by which the people are led to consider him in the light of a superior being, and to pay him that awful respect, which may enable him

k Peregrin. de jure fisc. l. 1. c. 1. num. 9.

with greater ease to carry on the business of government. This is what I understand by the royal dignity, the several branches of which we will now proceed to examine.

I. And, first, the law ascribes to the king the attribute of sovereignty, or pre-eminence.3 "Rex est vicarius," says Bracton,l "et minister Dei in terra: onnis quidem sub eo est, et ipse sub nullo, nisi tantum sub Deo." He is said to have imperial dignity, and in charters before the conquest is frequently stiled basileus and imperator, the titles respectively assumed by the emperors of the east and west.m His realm is declared to be an empire, and his crown imperial, by many acts of parliament, particularly the statutes 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12, and 25 Hen. VIII. c. 28;n which at the same time declare the king to be the supreme head of the realm, in matters both civil and ecclesiastical, and of consequence inferior to no man upon earth, dependent on no man, accountable to no man. Formerly there prevailed a ridiculous notion, propagated by the German and Italian civilians, that an emperor could do many things which a king could not, (as the creation of notaries and the like) and that all kings were in some degree subordinate and subject to the emperor of Germany or Rome. The meaning, therefore, of the legislature, when it uses these terms of empire and imperial, and applies them to the realm and crown of England, is only to assert that our king is equally sovereign and independent within these his dominions, as any emperor is in his empire;o and owes no kind of subjection to any other potentate upon earth. Hence, it is, that no suit or action can be brought against the king, even in civil matters, because no court can have jurisdiction over him. For all jurisdiction implies superiority

1 l. 1. c. 8. m Seld. tit. of hon. I. 2. n See also 24 Geo. II. c. 24. 5 Geo. III. c. 27.

o Rex allegavit, quod ipso omnes libertates haberet in regno suo, quas imperator vendicabut in imperio (M. Paris, A. D. 1095.)

3. In the United States of America, all notions of personal pre-eminence are consigned to oblivion, and it is hoped will forever remain buried under the immovable mass of equal rights.

of power: authority to try would be vain and idle, without an authority to redress; and the sentence of a court would be contemptible, unless that court had power to command the execution of it: but, who, says Finch,p shall command the king? Hence it is, likewise, that by law the person of the king is sacred, even though the measures pursued in his reign be completely tyrannical and arbitrary: for no jurisdiction upon earth has power to try him in a criminal way; much less to condemn him to punishment.4 If any foreign jurisdiction had this power, as was formerly claimed by the pope, the independence of the kingdom would be no more: and, if such a power were vested in any domestic tribunal, there would soon be an end of the constitution, by destroying the free agency of one of the constituent parts of the sovereign legislative power.

Are then, it may be asked, the subjects of England totally destitute of remedy, in case the crown should invade their rights, either by private injuries, or public oppressions? To this we may answer, that the law has provided a remedy in both cases.

And, first, as to private injuries: if any person has, In point of property, a just demand upon the king, he must petition him in his court of chancery, where his chancellor will administer right as a matter of grace, though not upon compulsion.q 5

b Finch. L, 83,

1 Finch. L. 255. See b. III. c. 17.

4. The constitution of the United States not only supposes a president may be fallible, but also criminal. It prescribes the mode in which he shall be tried, upon an impeachment, Art. 1. §. 3, and expressly declares that he shall be removed from office, on impeachment for, and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. C. U. S. Art. 2. The governor of Virginia, when he is out of office [His election is annual] shall be impeachable by the house of delegates, and tried in the general court: and if found guilty, he shall be either forever disabled to hold any office under government, or subject to such pains and penalties as the law shall direct. C. V. Art. 16.

5. Any person who is entitled to demand against the commonwealth any right in law or equity, may petition the high court of

And this is entirely consonant to what is laid down by the writers on natural law. "A subject, says Puffendorf,r so long as he continues a subject, hath no way to oblige his prince to give him his due, when he refuses it; though no wise prince will ever refuse to stand to a lawful contract. And, if the prince gives the subject leave to enter an action against him, upon such contract, in his own courts, the action itself proceeds rather upon natural equity, than upon the municipal laws." For the end of such action is not to compel the prince to observe the contract, but to persuade him. And, as to personal wrongs; it is well observed by Mr. Locke,s "the harm which the sovereign can do in his own person not being likely to happen often, nor to extend itself far; nor being able by his single strength to subvert the laws, nor oppress the body of the people, (should any prince have so much weakness and ill-nature as to endeavour to do it) .... the inconveniency therefore of some particular mischiefs, that may happen sometimes, when a heady prince comes to the throne, are well recompensed by the peace of the public and security of the government, in the person of the chief magistrate being thus set out of the reach of danger."

Next, as to cases of ordinary public oppression, where the vitals of the constitution are not attacked, the law hath also assigned a remedy. For as a king cannot misuse his power, without the advice of evil counsellors, and the assistance of wicked ministers, these men may be examined and punished. The constitution has, therefore, provided, by means of indictments, and parliamentary impeachments, that no man shall dare to assist the crown in contradiction to the laws of the land. But it is at the same time a maxim in those laws, that the king himself

r Law of N. and N. b. 8. c. 10. s On Gov. p. 2. §. 205.

chancery or the district court, holden at Richmond, for redress, and such court shall proceed to do right thereon. L. V. Edi. 1794, c. 85.

can do no wrong:6 since it would be a great weakness and absurdity in any system of positive law, to define any possible wrong, without any possible redress.

For, as to such public oppressions as tend to dissolve the constitution, and subvert the fundamentals of government, they are cases, which the law will not, out of decency, suppose: being incapable of distrusting those, whom it has invested with any part of the supreme power; since such distrust would render the exercise of that power precarious and impracticable.t For, wherever the law expresses it's distrust of abuse of power, it always vests a superior coercive authority in some other hand to correct it; the very notion of which destroys the idea of sovereignty. If, therefore, (for example) the two houses of parliament, or either of them, had avowedly a right to animadvert on the king, or each other, or if the king had a right to animadvert on either of the houses, that branch of the legislature, so subject to animadversion, would instantly cease to be part of the supreme power; the balance of the constitution would be overturned; and that branch or branches, in which this jurisdiction resided, would be completely sovereign. The supposition of law, therefore, is, that neither the king, nor either house of parliament (collectively taken) is capable of doing any wrong;7 since, in such cases, the law feels itself incapable of furnishing any ade-

t See these points more fully discussed in the considerations of the law of forfeiture, 3d edit. p. 109-126, wherein the very learned author has thrown many new and important lights on the texture of our happy constitution.

6. "When it is laid down as a maxim, that a king can do no wrong, it places him in a state of similar security with that of ideots, and persons insane, and responsibility is out of the question with respect to himself. It then descends upon the minister, who shelters himself under a majority in parliament, which, by places, pensions, and corruption, he can always command; and that majority justifies itself by the same authority with which it protects the minister," Paine's Rights of Man, part 1, p. 118, Albany, 1794.

7. "Here the learned judge tells us, that, because neither can the king exercise any arbitrary restraining power over either of

quate remedy. For which reason all oppressions, which may happen to spring from any branch of the sovereign power, must necessarily be out of the reach of any stated rule, or express legal provision: but, if ever they unfortunately happen, the prudence of the times must provide new remedies upon new emergencies.

Indeed, it is found by experience, that whenever the unconstitutional oppressions, even of the sovereign power, advance with gigantic strides, and threaten desolation to a state, mankind will not be reasoned out of the feelings of humanity, nor will sacrifice their liberty by a scrupulous adherence to these political maxims, which were originally established to preserve it. And, therefore, though the positive laws are silent, experience will furnish us with a very remarkable case, wherein nature and reason prevailed. When king James the second invaded the fundamental constitution of the realm, the convention declared an abdication, whereby the throne was rendered vacant, which induced a new settlement of the crown. And so far as this precedent leads, and no farther, we may now be allowed to lay down the law of redress against public oppression. If, therefore, any future prince should endeavour to subvert the constitution, by breaking the original contract between king and people, should violate the fundamental laws, and should withdraw himself out of the kingdom, we are now authorised to declare, that this conjunction of circumstances would amount to an abdication, and the throne would be thereby vacant. But it is not for us to say that any one, or two, of these ingredients would amount to such

the houses of parliament, nor either or both houses of parliament over the king .... therefore what? Therefore, the supposition of the law is, that none of the three branches of the legislature can do wrong, because the law feels itself incapable of furnishing an adequate remedy. If the law or the lawyers suppose that none of three branches of the legislature is capable of doing wrong, for that they are supreme, and whatever the supreme power establishes, must of course be right, as none can say to the supreme power, what dost thou? Yet history shews, that king, lords, and commons, have often (as was to be expected from the weakness of human nature) done very wrong things." Burgh's Pol. Disq. vol. 3. p. 276.

a situation; for there our precedent would fail us. In these, therefore, or other circumstances, which a fertile imagination may furnish, since both law and history are silent, it becomes us to be silent too; leaving to future generations, whenever necessity and the safety of the whole shall require it, the exertion of those inherent (though latent) powers of society, which no climate, no time, no constitution, no contract, can ever destroy or diminish.

II. Beside the attribute of sovereignty, the law also ascribes to the king, in his political capacity, absolute perfection. The king can do no wrong.8 Which antient and fundamental maxim is not to be understood, as if every thing transacted by the government was of course just and lawful, but means only two things. First, that whatever is exceptionable in the conduct of public affairs is not to be imputed to the king, nor is he answerable for it personally to his people: for this doctrine would totally destroy that constitutional independence of the crown, which is necessary for the balance of power in our free and active, and therefore compounded, constitution. And, secondly, it means that the prerogative of the crown extends not to do any injury; it is created for the benefit of the people, and therefore cannot be exerted to their prejudice.u

The king, moreover, is not only incapable of doing wrong, but even of thinking wrong; he can never mean to do an improper thing: in him is no folly or weakness. And, therefore, if the crown should be induced to grant any franchise or privilege to a subject contrary to reason, or in any wise prejudicial to the commonwealth, or a private person, the law will not suppose the king to have meant either an unwise or an injurious action, but declares that the king was deceived in his grant; and thereupon such grant is rendered void, merely upon the foundation of fraud and deception, either by or upon those agents, whom the crown

u Plowd. 487.

8. See the Notes, p. 242, 244.

has thought proper to employ. For the law will not cast an imputation on that magistrate whom it intrusts with the executive power, as if he was capable of intentionally disregarding his trust: but attributes to mere imposition (to which the most perfect of sublunary beings must still continue liable) those little inadvertencies, which, if charged on the will of the prince, might lessen him in the eyes of his subjects.

Yet still, notwithstanding this personal perfection, which the law attributes to the sovereign, the constitution has allowed a latitude of supposing the contrary, in respect to both houses of parliament; each of which, in it's turn, hath exerted the right of remonstrating and complaining to the king even of those acts of royalty, which are most properly and personally his own;

such as messages signed by himself, and speeches delivered from the throne. And yet, such is the reverence which is paid to the royal person, that though the two houses have an undoubted right to consider these acts of state, in any light whatever, and accordingly treat them in their addresses as personally proceeding from the prince, yet among themselves, (to preserve the more perfect decency, and for the greater freedom of debate) they usually suppose them to flow from the advice of the administration. But the privilege of canvassing thus freely the personal acts of the sovereign (either directly, or even through the medium of Ins reputed advisers) belongs to no individual, but is confined to those august assemblies: and there too the objections must be proposed with the utmost respect and deference. One member was sent to the tower,w for suggesting that his majesty's answer to the address of the commons contained "high words to fright the members out of their duty;" and another,x for saying that a part of the king's speech "seemed rather to be calculated for the meridian of Germany than Great Britain, and that the king was a stranger to our language and constitution."9

w Com. Journ. 18 Nov. 1683. x Ibid. 4 Dec. 1717.

9. These instances do not seem calculated to impress an American with a very high idea of the freedom of speech, and of debate in a British parliament, when the person of the king is concerned.

In farther pursuance of this principle, the law also determines that in the king can be no negligence, or laches, and therefore no delay will bar his right. Nullum tempus occurrit regi has been the standing maxim upon all occasions: for the law intends that the king is always busied for the public good, and therefore has not leisure to assert his right within the times limited to subjects.y(9) In the king also can be no stain or corruption of blood: for if the heir to the crown were attainted of treason or felony, and afterwards the crown should descend to him, this would purge the attainder ipso facto.z And, therefore, when Henry VII, who as earl of Richmond stood attainted, came to the crown, it was not thought necessary to pass an act of parliament to reverse this attainder; because, as lord Bacon in his history of that prince informs us, it was agreed that the assumption of the crown had at once purged all attainders. Neither can the king, in judgment of law, as king, ever be a minor or under age; and therefore his royal grants and assents to acts of parliament are good, though he has not in his natural capacity attained the legal age of twenty-one.a By a statute indeed, 28 Hen. VIII, c. 17, power was given to future king's to rescind and revoke all acts of parliament that should be made while they were under the age of twenty-four: but this was repealed by the statute 1 Edw. VI, c. 11, so far as related to that prince; and both statutes are declared to be determined by 24 Geo. II. c. 24. It hath also been usually thought prudent, when the heir apparent has been very young, to appoint a protector, guardian, or regent, for a limited time: but the very necessity of such extraordinary provision is sufficient to demonstrate the truth of that maxim of the common law, that in the king is no minority;

and therefore he hath no legal guardian.b

y Finch. L. 82, Co. Litt. 90. z Finch. L. 82. a Co. Litt. 43. 2 Inst. proem. 3.

b The methods of appointing this guardian or regent have been so various, and the duration of his power so uncertain, that from hence alone it may be

(9.) No time shall bar the commonwealth of execution. L. V. Edi. 1785, Oct. 1778, c, 2. §. 4. the title of the commonwealth to lands which have been settled thirty years, upon which quitrents or taxes have been paid at any time within that period, is relinquished, by the act of 1797, c. 10.

III. A third attribute of the king's majesty is his perpetuity. The law ascribes to him, in his political capacity, an absolute immortality. The king never dies. Henry, Edward, or George may die; but the king survives them all.10 For

collected that his office is unknown to the common law; and therefore (as Sir Edward Coke says, 4 Inst. 58.) the surest way is to have him made by authority, of the great council in parliament. The earl of Pembroke, by his own authority assumed in very troublesome times the regency of Henry III, who was then only nine years old; but was declared of full age by the pope at seventeen, confirmed the great charter at eighteen, and took upon him the administration of the government at twenty. A guardian and council of regency were named for Edward III, by the parliament, which deposed his father; the young king being then fifteen, and not assuming the government till three years after. When Richard II, succeeded at the age of eleven, the duke of Lancaster took upon him the management of the kingdom, till the parliament met, which appointed a nominal council to assist him. Henry V, on his death bed named a regent and a guardian for his infant son Henry VI, then nine months old; but the parliament altered his disposition, and appointed a protector and council, with a special limited authority. Both these princes remained in a state of pupilage till the age of twenty-three. Edward V, at the age of thirteen, was recommend by his father to the care of the duke of Glocester; who was declared protector by the privy council. The statutes 23 Hen. VIII, c. 12, and 28 Hen. VIII, c. 7, provided, that the successor, if a male, and under eighteen, or if a female and under sixteen, should be till such age in the government of his or her natural mother, (if approved by the king) and such other counsellors as his majesty should by will or otherwise appoint: and he accordingly appointed his sixteen executors to have the government of his son Edward VI, and the kingdom, which executors elected the earl of Hertford protector. The statute 24 Geo. II, c. 24, in case the crown should descend to any of the children of Frederic late prince of Wales under (he age of eighteen, appointed the princess dowager; and that of 5 Geo. III, c. 27, in case of a like descent to any of his present majesty's children, empowers, the king to name either the queen, the princess dowager, or any descendant of king George II, residing in this kingdom; to be guardian and regent, till the successor attains such age, assisted by a council of regency: the powers of them all being expressly defined and set down in the several acts.

10. The constitution of the United States, and the law made in pursuance thereof, 4 Cong. c. 8, have, it is presumed, made effectual provision for the uninterrupted continuation of the executive office in the United States, without recurring to this maxim of the British government. In case of the death or inability of the president, the vice-president instantly succeeds to the executive office. If there be no vice-president, the president of the senate, pro tem-

immediately upon the decease of the reigning prince in his natural capacity, his kingship or imperial dignity, by act of law, without any interregnum or interval, is vested at once in his heir; who is, eo instanti, king to all intents and purposes. And so tender is the law of supposing even a possibility of his death, that his natural dissolution is generally called his demise; demissio regis, vel, coronae: an expression which signifies merely a transfer of property; for, as is observed in Plowden,c when we say the demise of the crown, we mean only that, in consequence of the disunion of the king's natural body from his body politic, the kingdom is transferred or demised to his successor; and so the royal dignity remains perpetual. Thus, too, when Edward the fourth, in the tenth year of his reign, was driven from his throne, for a few months, by the house of Lancaster, this temporary transfer of his dignity was denominated his demise; and all process was held to be discontinued, as upon a natural death of the king.d

We are next to consider those branches of the royal prerogative, which invest thus our sovereign lord, thus all-perfect and immortal in his kingly capacity, with a number of authorities and powers; in the exertion whereof consists the executive part of government.11 This is wisely placed in a single

c Plowd. 177, 234. d M. 49 Hen. VI. pl. 1-8.

pore, is to supply his place; and if there be no such person, the office devolves upon the speaker of the house of representatives. C. U. S. Art. 2. L. U. S. 2 Cong. c. 8.

The president of the privy council, in Virginia, or in case of his death, or inability, the privy councillor, whose name stands next in the list of appointments, shall, in case of the death, inability, or necessary absence of the governor from the government, act as lieutenant governor. C. V. Art. 11. V. L. Edi. 1794, c. 62.

11. In the course of this investigation the student will discover, that a part only of these powers are confided solely to the president of the United States; in many instances they cannot be exercised without the concurrence of the senate, as an executive council; in not a few, congress, taken collectively, are invested with the authority of the government.

hand by the British constitution, for the sake, of. unanimity, strength, and dispatch. Were it placed in many hands, it would be subject to many wills: many wills, if disunited and drawing different ways, create weakness in a government; and to unite those several wills, and reduce them to one, is a work of more time and delay than the exigencies of state will afford. The king of England is therefore not only the chief, but properly the sole, magistrate of the nation;l2 all others acting by commission from, and in due subordination to him: in like manner as, upon the great revolution in the Roman state, all the powers of the antient magistracy of the commonwealth were concentred in the new emperor: so that, as Gravinae expresses it, "in ejus unius persona veteris reipublicae vis atque majestas per cumulatas magistratuum potestates exprimebatur."

After what has been premised in this chapter, I shall not (I trust) be considered as an advocate for arbitrary power, when I lay it down as a principle, that, in the exertion of lawful prerogative, the king is, and ought to be absolute; that is, so far absolute, that there is no legal authority that can either delay or resist him. He may reject what bllls, may make what treaties, may coin what money, may create what peers, may pardon what offences he pleases: unless where the constitution hath expressly, or by evident consequence, laid down some exception or boundary; declaring, that thus far the prerogative shall go and no farther.13 For other-

e Orig. 1. 103.

12. It is otherwise in the United States; the president is the chief magistrate, but he is not the sole magistrate of the nation. He may nominate, but he cannot make a permanent appointment, to office (except in some particular instances) without the concurrence of the senate. Many of those who are nominated and commissioned are not responsible to him, or removeable by him; but are responsible only to the people, and to the law, and removeable only upon impeachment by their representatives, and upon conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. C. U. S. Art. 2, 3.

13. The powers, or more properly, the duties, of the executive department, are, in general, well defined, and limited in the constitution of the United States. Art. 2. In some instances there is per-

wise the power of the crown would indeed be but a name and a shadow, insufficient for the ends of government, if, where its jurisdiction is clearly established and allowed, any man or body of men were permitted to disobey it, in the ordinary course of law: I say, in the ordinary course of law; for I do not now speak of those extraordinary recourses to first principles, which are necessary when the contracts of society are in danger of dissolution, and the law proves too weak a defence against the violence of fraud or oppression. And yet the want of attending to this obvious distinction has occasioned these doctrines, of absolute power in the prince, and of national resistance by the people, to be much misunderstood and perverted, by the advocates for slavery on the one hand, and the demagogues of faction on the other. The former, observing the absolute sovereignty and transcendant dominion of the crown laid down (as it certainly is) most strongly and emphatically in our law-books, as well as our homilies, have denied that any case can be excepted from so general and positive a rule; forgetting how impossible it is, in any practical system of laws, to point out beforehand those eccentrical remedies, which the sudden emergence of national distress may dictate, and which that alone can justify. On the other hand, over-zealous republicans, feeling the absurdity of unlimited passive obedience, have fancifully (or sometimes factiously) gone over to the other extreme: and because resistance is justifiable to the person of the prince when the being of the state is endangered, and the public voice proclaims such resistance necessary, they have therefore allowed to every individual the right of determining this expedience, and of employing private force to resist even private oppression, A doctrine productive of anarchy, and (in consequence) equally fatal to civil liberty as tyranny itself. For civil liberty, rightly understood, consists in protecting the rights of individuals by the united force of society: society can-

haps too much room left for an extension of them by construction, and reference to the British model. On the other hand, in the commonwealth of Virginia, the powers of the executive are not only limited, without the possibility of a constructive extension of them, but, in general, submitted entirely to the control of the legislature, C. V. Art. 9.

not be maintained, and of course can exert no protection, without obedience to some sovereign power: and obedience is an empty name, if every individual has a right to decide how far he himself shall obey.

In the exertion, therefore, of these prerogatives, which the law has given him, the king is irresistible and absolute, according to the forms of the constitution. And yet, if the consequence of that exertion be manifestly to the grievance or dishonour of the kingdom, the parliament will call his advisers to a just and severe account. For prerogative consisting (as Mr. Lockef has well defined it) in the discretionary power of acting for the public good, where the positive laws are silent; if that discretionary power be abused to the public detriment, such prerogative is exerted in an unconstitutional manner. Thus the king may make a treaty with a foreign state, which shall irrevocably bind the nation; and yet, when such treaties have been judged pernicious, impeachments have pursued those ministers, by whose agency or advice they were concluded.

The prerogatives of the crown (in the sense under which we are now considering them) respect either this nation's intercourse with foreign nations, or it's own domestic government and civil polity.

With regard to foreign concerns, the king is the delegate or representative of his people. It is impossible that the individuals of a state, in their collective capacity, can transact the affairs of that state with another community, equally numerous as themselves. Unanimity must be wanting to their measures, and strength to the execution of their counsels. In the king, therefore, as in a centre, all the rays of his people are united, and form, by that union, a consistency, splendour, and power, that make him feared and respected by foreign potentates; who would scruple to enter into any engagement, that must afterwards be revised and ratified by a popular assembly. What is done by the royal authority, with regard to foreign powers, is the act of the whole nation: what is done without the king's

concurrence, is the act only of private men. And so far is this point carried by our law, that it hath been held,g that should all the subjects of England make war with a king in league with the king of England, without the royal assent, such war is no breach of the league. And, by the statute 2 Hen. V. c. 6, any subject committing acts of hostility, upon any nation in league with the king, was declared to be guilty of high treason: and, though that act was repealed by the statute 20 Hen. VI. c. II.14 so far as relates to the making this offence high treason, yet still it remains a very great offence against the law of nations,15 and punishable, by our laws, either capitally or otherwise, according to the circumstances of the case.

I. The king, therefore, considered as the representative of his people, has the sole power of sending ambassadors to foreign states, and receiving ambassadors at home.16 This may lead us into a short digression, by way of inquiry, how far the municipal laws of England intermeddle with or protect the rights of these

g 4 Inst. 153.

14. The statutes, so far as relates to the crime of treason, are repealed in the United States. C. U. S. Art. 3. §. 3.

15. The case of Henfield, who was prosecuted in the federal court of Pennsylvania, for acting as a prize-master on board a vessel taken by a French privateer, was supposed to fall under this construction. Congress at the succeeding session passed an act, whose duration was limited to two years, the object of which was, generally, to prohibit any acts of hostility being committed by the citizens of the United States, under authority of any of the belligerent powers, against any powers with whom the United States are at peace. L. U. S. 3. cong. c. 50. The same thing is also prohibited by our treaties, with France, Holland, Prussia, Sweden and Great-Britain. See also L. U. S. 5 cong. c. 1.

16. "The president of the United States shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls." .... "He shall also, receive ambassadors, and other public ministers." C. U. S. Art. 2. §. 2, 3.

messengers from one potentate to another, whom we call embassadors.

The rights, the powers, the duties, and the privileges of embassadors, are determined by the law of nature and nations, and not by any municipal constitutions. For, as they represent the persons of their respective masters, who owe no subjection to any laws but those of their own country, their actions are not subject to the control of the private law of that state, wherein they are appointed to reside. He that is subject to the coercion of laws is necessarily dependent on that power by whom those laws were made: but an embassador ought to be independent of every power, except that by which he is sent; and of consequence ought not to be subject to the mere municipal laws of that nation, wherein he is to exercise his functions. If he grossly offends, or makes an ill use of his character, he may be sent home and accused before his master;h who is bound either to do justice upon him, or avow himself the accomplice of his crimes.i But there is great dispute among the writers on the law of nations, whether this exemption of embassadors extends to all crimes, as well natural as positive; or whether it only extends to such as are mala prohibita, as coining, and not to those that are mala in se, as murder.k Our law seems to have formerly taken in the restriction, as well as the general exemption. For it has been held, both by our common lawyers and civiliansl that an embassador is privileged by the law of nature and nations; and yet, if he commits any offence against the law of reason and nature, he shall lose his privilege:m and that, therefore, if an embassador conspires the death of the king in whose land he is, he may be condemned and executed for treason; but if he commits any other species of treason, it is otherwise, and he must be sent to his own kingdom.n And these positions seem to be built upon

h As was done with count Gyllenberg, the Swedish minister to Great-Britain, A. D. 1716.

i Sp. L. 26. 21.

k Van Leeuwen in Ff. 50, 7, 17, Barbeyrac's Puff. l. 8. c. 9. §. 9. and 17 Van Bynkershoek de foro legator. c. 17, 18, 19.

l 1 Roll. Rep. 175. 3 Bulstr. 27. m 4 Inst. 153. n 1 Roll. Rep. 185.

good appearance of reason. For since, as we have formerly shewn, all municipal laws act in subordination to the primary law of nature; and, where they annex a punishment to natural crimes, are only declaratory of and auxiliary to that law; therefore, to this natural universal rule of justice, embassadors, as well as other men, are subject in all countries; and of consequence it is reasonable that, wherever they transgress it, there they shall be liable to make atonement.o But, however these principles might formerly obtain, the general practice of this country, as well as of the rest of Europe, seems now to pursue the sentiments of the learned Grotius, that the security of embassadors is of more importance than the punishment of a particular crime.p And, therefore, few, if any, examples have happened within a century past, where an embassador has been punished for any offence, however atrocious in it's nature.

In respect to civil suits, all the foreign jurists agree, that neither an embassador, or any of his train or comites, can be prosecuted for any debt or contract, in the courts of that kingdom wherein he is sent to reside. Yet sir Edward Coke maintains, that, if an embassador make a contract which is good jure gentium, he shall answer for it here.q But the truth is, so few cases (if any) had arisen, wherein the privilege was either claimed or disputed, even with regard to civil suits, that our law books are (in general) quite silent upon it previous to the reign of queen Anne; when an embassador from Peter the great, czar of Muscovy, was actually arrested and taken out of his coach in London,r for a debt of fifty pounds which he had there contracted. Instead of applying to be discharged upon his privilege, he gave bail to the action, and the next day complained to the queen. The persons who were concerned in the arrest were examined before the privy council, (of which the lord chief justice Holt was at the same time sworn a member)s and seventeen were committed to prison:t most of whom were prosecuted by information in the

o Foster's Reports, 188.

p Securitas legatorum utilitati quae ex poena est praeponderat. (de jure b. & p. 18, 4, 4.) q 4 Inst. 153. r 21 July, 1708. Boyer's Annals of queen Anne. s 25 July, 1708. Ibid. t 25, 29 July, 1708. Ibid.

court of queen's bench, at the suit of the attorney-general,u and at their trial before the lord chief justice were convicted of the facts by the jury,w reserving the question of law, how far those facts were criminal, to be afterwards argued before the judges;

which question was never determined. In the mean time, the czar resented this affront very highly, and demanded that the sheriff of Middlesex, and all others concerned in the arrest, should be punished with instant death.x But the queen (to the amazement of that despotic court) directed her secretary to inform him, "that she could inflict no punishment upon any, the meanest, of her subjects, unless warranted by the law of the land: and, therefore, was persuaded that he would not insist upon impossibilities."y To satisfy, however, the clamours of the foreign ministers (who made it a common cause) as well as to appease the wrath of Peter, a bill was brought into parliament,z and afterwards passed into a law,a to prevent and to punish such outrageous insolence for the future. And with a copy of this act, elegantly engrossed and illuminated, accompanied by a letter from the queen, an embassador extraordinaryb was commissioned to appear at Moscow,c who declared, "that though her majesty could not inflict such a punishment as was required, because of the defect in that particular of the former established constitutions of her kingdom, yet, with the unanimous consent of the parliament, she had caused a new act to be passed, to serve as a law for the future." This humiliating step was accepted as a full satisfaction by the czar; and the offenders, at his request, were discharged from all farther prosecution.

This statuted recites the arrest which had been made, "in contempt of the protection granted by her majesty, contrary to the law of nations, and in prejudice of the rights and privileges, which embassadors and other public ministers have at all times been thereby possessed of, and ought to be kept

u 23 Oct. 1708. Ibid. w 14 Feb. 1708. Ibid.

x 17 Sept. 1708. Ibid.

y 11 Jan. 1708. Ibid. Mod. Un. Hist. xxxv. 454.

z Com. Journ. 23 Dec. 1708. a 21 Apr. 1709. Boyer, Ibid.

h Mr. Whitworth. c 8 Jan. 1709. Boyer, Ibid.

d 7 Ann. c. 12.

"sacred and inviolable:" wherefore, it enacts, that for the future all process whereby the person of any embassador, or of his domestic, or domestic servant may he arrested, or his goods distrained or seized, shall be utterly null and void; and the persons prosecuting, soliciting, or executing such process, shall be deemed violaters of the law of nations, and disturbers of the public repose;17 and shall suffer such penalties and corporal punishment as the lord chancellor and the two chief justices, or any two of them, shall think fit. But it is expressly provided, that no trader within the description of the bankrupt laws, who shall be in the service of any embassador, shall be priviledged or protected by this act;18 nor shall any one be punished for arresting an embassador's servant, unless his name be registered with the secretary of state, and by him transmitted to the sheriffs of London and Middlesex.19 Exceptions that are strictly conformable to the rights of embassadors,e as observed in the most civilized countries. And, in consequence of this statute, thus declaring and enforcing the law of nations,20 these privi-

e Saepe quaesitum est an comitum numero et jure habendi sunt, qui legatum comitantur, non ut instructior fiat legatio, sed unice ut lucro suo consulant, institores forte et mercatores. Et, quamvis hos saepe defenderint et comitum loco habere voluerint legati, apparet tamen satis eo non pertinere, qui in legati legationisve officio non sunt. Quum autem ea res nonnunquam turbas dederit, optimo exemplo in quibusdam aulis olim receptum fuit, ut legatus teneretur exhibere nomenclaturam comitum suorum. Van Bynkersh. c. 15. prope finem.

17. L. U. S. 1 Cong. 2 Sess. c. 9. §. 25, 26, accordant. And the person convicted shall be imprisoned, not exceeding three years, and fined at the discretion of the court. Ibidem.

18. No citizen or inhabitant of the United States who shall have contracted debts prior to his entering into the service of any ambassador, or other public minister, which debts shall be still due and unpaid shall have the benefit of the act. L. U. S. 1 Cong. 2 Sess. c. 9. §. 27.

19. The act of congress contains a similar provision in respect to servants. See also, 3 Burr. 1676, 1 Wills. 20, 78.

20. The act of congress further declares, "That if any person shall assault, strike, wound, imprison, or in any other manner infract the law of nations by offering violence to the person of an ambassador, or other public minister, such person, so offending, on conviction shall be imprisoned not exceeding three years, and fined at the discretion of the court." L. U. S. Ib. §. 28.

leges are now held to be a part of the law of the land, and are constantly allowed in the courts of common law. f

II. It is also the king's prerogative to make treaties, leagues, and alliances with foreign states and princes. For it is by the law of nations essential to the goodness of a league, that it be made by the sovereign power;g and then it is binding upon the whole community: and in England the sovereign power, quoad hoc, is vested in the person of the king.21 Whatever contracts, therefore, he engages in, no other power in the kingdom can legally delay, resist, or annul. And, yet, lest this plenitude of authority should be abused to the detriment of the public, the constitution (as was hinted before) hath here interposed a check, by the means of parliamentary Impeachment,22 for the punishment of such ministers as from criminal motives advise or conclude any treaty, which shall afterwards be judged to derogate from the honour and interest of the nation.

III. Upon the same principle the king has also the sole prerogative of making war and peace.23 For it is held by all the

f Fitzg. 200. Stra. 797. g Puff. L. of N. b. 8. c. 9, Sec. 6.

21. The president of the United States hath power, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur. C. U. S. Art. 2. §. 2.

22. See p. 155, note 12.

23. The constitution of the United States, intrusts the important power of making war, not in the president, nor in the president and senate, but in congress: where the people by their immediate representatives deliberate upon the necessity of involving the nation in such a state of calamity. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 8, 10.

The French constitution says "that the right of war and peace is in the nation. Where else should it reside, but in those who are to pay the expence?"

"War is the common harvest of all those who participate in the division and expenditure of public money, in all countries. It is the art of conquering at home; the object of it is an increase of revenue; and, as revenue cannot be increased without taxes, a

writers on the law of nature and nations, that the right of making war, which by nature subsisted in every individual, is given up by all private persons that enter into society, and is vested in the sovereign power h: and this right is given up, not only by individuals, but even by the entire body of people, that are under the dominion of a sovereign. It would, indeed, be extremely improper, that any number of subjects should have the power of binding the supreme magistrate, and putting him against his will in a state of war. Whatever hostilities, therefore, may be committed by private citizens, the state ought not to be affected thereby; unless that should justify their proceedings, and thereby become partner in the guilt. Such unauthorised volunteers in violence are not ranked among open enemies, but are treated like pirates and robbers:24 according to that rule of the civil lawi hostes hi sunt qui nobis, aut quibis nos, publice bellum decrevimus: caeteri latrones aut praedones sunt. And the reason which is given by Grotius,j why according to the law of nations a denunciation of war ought always to precede the actual commencement of hostilities, is not so much that the enemy may be put upon his guard, (which is matter rather of magnanimity than right) but that it may be certainly clear that the war is not undertaken by private persons, but by the will of the whole com-

h Puff. b. 8. c 6. Sec. 8, and Barbeyr. in loc.

i Ff. 50, 16, 118.

j de jure b. & p. l. 3. c. 3. Sec. 11.

pretence must be made for expenditures. In reviewing the history of the English government, it's wars, and it's taxes, a byestander not blinded by prejudice, or warped by interest, would declare, that taxes are not raised, to carry on wars, but that wars were raised to carry on taxes.

"The French constitution, therefore, to provide against those evils, has taken away the power of declaring war, from kings and ministers, and placed the right, where the expence must fall. Were this the case in all countries we should hear but little more of wars," Paine's Rights of Man, part 1. p. 48, 49. Albany, 1794.

24. See note 15. p. 253. No state shall without consent of congress engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 10. Nor at any time grant letters of marque and reprisal. Ibid.

community; whose right of willing is in this case transferred to the supreme magistrate, by the fundamental laws of society. So that, In order to make a war completely effectual, it is necessary, with us in England, that it be publicly declared, and duly proclaimed by the king's authority; and, then, all parts of both the contending nations, from the highest to the lowest, are bound by it. And, wherever, the right resides of beginning a national war, there also must reside the right of ending it, or the power of making peace.25 And the same check of parliamentary impeachment, for improper or inglorious conduct, in beginning, conducting, or concluding a national war, is, in general, sufficient to restrain the ministers of the crown from a wanton or injurious exertion of this great prerogative.26

IV. But, as the delay of making war may sometimes be detrimental to individuals who have suffered by depredations from foreign potentates, our laws have, in some respects, armed the subject with powers to impel the prerogative; by directing the ministers of the crown to issue letters of marque and reprisal upon due demand: the prerogative of granting which is nearly related to, and plainly derived from, that other of making war;

this being indeed only an incomplete state of hostilities, and generally ending in a formal denunciation of war. These letters are grantable by the law of nations,k whenever the subjects of one state are oppressed and injured by those of another; and justice is denied by that state to which the oppressor belongs.

k Ibid. l. 3. c. 2. Sec. 4 & 5.

25. Though this conclusion seems very natural, yet by a single provision in the constitution of the United States, the president, by and with the advice and consent of two thirds of the senators present, may conclude a treaty of peace, without the concurrence of the house of representatives, whose assent is necessary to put the nation into a state of war, though it seems unnecessary to it's restoration to a state of peace. See C. U. S. Art. 1, 2.

26. Mr. Burgh treats the check of parliamentary impeachment, with as little ceremony or respect as Mackintosh, (see p. 155, note 12,) in his strictures on this passage. Pol. Disq. Vol. 1. p. 371, Philadelphia, 1775.

In this case letters of marque and reprisal (words used as synonimous; and signifying, the latter a taking in return, the former the passing the frontiers in order to such taking)l may be obtained, in order to seise the bodies or goods of the subjects of the offending state, until satisfaction be made, wherever they happen to be found. And, indeed, this custom of reprisals seems dictated by nature herself; for which reason we find in the most antient times very notable instances of it.m But here the necessity is obvious of calling in the sovereign power, to determine when reprisals may be made; else every private sufferer would be a judge in his own cause. In pursuance of which principle, it is with us declared by the statute 4 Hen. V. c. 7, that, if any subjects of the realm are oppressed in time of truce by any foreigners, the king will grant marque in due form, to all that feel themselves grieved. Which form is thus directed to be observed: the sufferer must first apply to the lord privy-seal, and he shall make out letters of request under the privy-seal; and, if, after such request of satisfaction made, the party required, do not within convenient time make due satisfaction or restitution to the party grieved, the lord chancellor shall make him out letters of marque under the great seal; and by virtue of these he may attack and seise the property of the aggressor nation, without hazard of being condemned as a robber or pirate.27

V. Upon exactly the same reason stands the prerogative of granting safe-conducts,28 without which, by the law of nations,

1. Dufresne. tit. Marca.

m See the account given by Nestor, m the eleventh book of the Illiad, of the reprisals made by himself on the Epeian nation; from whom he took a multitude of cattle, as a satisfaction for a prize won at the Elian games by his father Neleus, and for debts due to many private subjects of the Pylian kingdom; out of which booty the king took three hundred head of cattle for his own demand, and the rest were equitably divided among the other creditors.

27. As congress, only, can declare war, so congress, only, can grant letters of marque and reprisal. The states are prohibited from granting them even in time of war. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 8, 10. The manner in which they shall be granted has not yet been prescribed. But now see the act of 5 Cong. c. 85. §. 2, 3.

28. The act of 1 Cong. 2 Sess. c. 9. Sec. 28, declares, "That if any person shall violate any safe conduct, or passport duly obtained and issued under the authority of the United States, the person

no member of one society has a right to intrude into another. And, therefore, Puffendorf very justly resolves,n that it is left in the power of all states, to take such measures about the admission of strangers, as they think convenient; those being ever excepted who are driven on the coasts by necessity, or by any cause that deserves pity or compassion. Great tenderness is shewn by our laws, not only to foreigners in distress (as will appear when we come to speak of shipwrecks) but with regard also to the admission of strangers who come spontaneously. For so long as their nation continues at peace with ours, and they themselves behave peaceably, they are under the king's protection;

though liable to be sent home whenever the king sees occasion. (28) But no subject of a nation at war with us can, by the law of nations, come into the realm, nor can travel himself upon the high seas, or send his goods and merchandize from one place to another, without danger of being seised by our subjects, unless he has letters of safe-conduct; which by divers antient statutes o must be granted under the king's great seal, and in-rolled in chancery, or else are of no effect: the king being supposed the best judge of such emergencies, as may deserve exception from the general law of arms. But passports under the king's sign-manual, or licences from his ambassadors abroad, are now more usually obtained, and are allowed to be of equal validity.

Indeed the law of England, as a commercial country, pays a very particular regard to foreign merchants in innumerable instances. One I cannot omit to mention: that by magna cartap it is provided, that all merchants (unless publicly prohibited be-

n Law of N. and N. b. 3. c. 3. Sec. 9.

o 15 Hen. VI. c. 3. 18 Hen. VI. c. 8. 20 Hen. VI. c. 1.

p c. 30.

so offending, on conviction, shall be imprisoned not exceeding three years, and fined at the discretion of the court."

(28.) See L. U. S. 5 Cong. c. 75, commonly called the alien bill, as also, the act concerning alien enemies .... Ib. c. 83. The former of which was probably borrowed from the statute of 33 Geo. 3. c. 4, to the like effect.

fore-hand) shall have safe-conduct to depart from, to come into, to tarry in, and to go through England, for the exercise of merchandize, without any unreasonable imposts, except in time of war: and, if a war breaks out between us and their country, they shall be attached (if in England) without harm of body or goods, till the king or his chief justiciary be informed how our merchants are treated in the land with which we are at war;

and, if ours be secure in that land, they shall be secure in ours.29 This seems to have been a common rule of equity among all the northern nations; for we learn from Stiernhook,q that it was a maxim among the Goths and Swedes, "quam legem exteri nobis posuere, eandem illis ponemus." But it is somewhat extraordinary, that it should have found a place in magna carta, a mere interior treaty between the king and his natural-born subjects:

q de jure Sueon. l. 3. c. 4.

29. Herewith agrees the act of 1785, c. 79. V. L. 1794, c. 12. By our treaties with Prance, Holland, Sweden, Prussia, and the emperor of Morocco, from six to nine months are allowed the merchants of those nations, respectively, to withdraw themselves, and their effects, in case of war. But it is stipulated in the treaty of 1794, between the United States and Great Britain, "that in case of a rupture between them, the merchants and others of each of the two nations residing in the dominions of the other, shall have the privilege of remaining and continuing their trade, so long as they behave peaceably, and commit no offence against the laws; and in case their conduct should render them suspected, and the respective governments should think proper to order them to remove, the term of twelve months, from the publication of the order, shall be allowed them for that purpose, to remove all their families, effects, and property; but this favour shall not be extended to those who act contrary to the established laws." Art. 26.

The act of 5 Cong. c. 83, declares, that aliens, with whose nation we have any treaty, shall, in case of war, be permitted to remain in the United States the full time stipulated by treaty; and where there is no such treaty, the president may ascertain and declare such reasonable time for their departure, as may be consistent with the public safety, and according to the dictates of humanity and national hospitality.

which occasions the learned Montesquieu to remark, with a degree of admiration, "that the English have made the protection of foreign merchants one of the articles of their national liberty."r But indeed it well justifies another observation which he has made,s "that the English know better than any other people upon earth, how to value at the same time these three great advantages, religion, liberty, and commerce." Very different from the genius of the Roman people; who in their manners, their constitution, and even in their laws, treated commerce as a dishonourable employment, and prohibited the exercise thereof to persons of birth, or rank, or fortune:t and equally different from the bigotry of the canonists, who looked on trade as inconsistent with christianity,u and determined at the council of Melfi, under pope Urban II, A. D. 1090, that it was impossible, with a safe conscience, to exercise any traffic, or follow the profession of the law.w

These are the principal prerogatives of the king respecting this nation's intercourse with foreign nations; in all of which he is considered as the delegate or representative of his people. But, in domestic affairs, he is considered in a great variety of characters, and from thence there arises an abundant number of other prerogatives.

I. First, he is a constituent part of the supreme legislative power; and, as such, has the prerogative of rejecting such provisions in parliament, as he judges improper to be passed.30

r Sp. L. 20, 13.

s Ibid. 20, 6.

t Nobiliores natalibus, et honorum luce conspicuos, et patrimonio ditiores, perniciosum, urbibus mercimonium exercere prohibemus. C. 4, 63, 3.

u Homo mercator vix aut nunquam potest Deo placere: et ideo nullus christianus debet esse mercator; aut si voluerit esse, projiciatur de ecclesia Dei. Decret. 1, 88, 11.

w Falsa fit poenitentia [laici] cum penitus ab officio curiali vel negotiali non recedit, quae sine peccatis agi ulla ratione non praevalet. Act. Concil. apud. Baron, c. 16.

30. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives and senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the

The expediency of which constitution has before been evinced at large.x I shall only farther remark, that the king is not bound by any act of parliament, unless he be named therein by special and particular words.31 The most general words that can be devised ("any person or persons, bodies politic or corporate, &c.") affect not him in the least, if they may tend to restrain or diminish any of his rights or interests.y For it would be of most mischievous consequence to the public, if the strength of the executive power were liable to be curtailed without it's own express consent, by constructions and implications of the subject. Yet, where an act of parliament is expressly made for the preservation of public rights and the suppression of public wrongs, and does not interfere with the established rights of the crown, it is said to be binding as well upon the king as upon the subject:z and, likewise, the king may take the benefit of any particular act, though he be not especially named.a

II. The king is considered, in the next place, as the generalissimo, or the first in military command, within the kingdom.32

x ch 2. p. 154. z Ibid. 71.

y 11 Rep 74. a 7 Rep. 32.

president of the United States. If he approve, he shall sign it; if not, he shall return it, with his objections, &c. See note p. 184. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 7.

31. This rule of construction is not applicable to the government of the United States.

32. The president of the United States is commander in chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States. C. U. S. Art. 2.

The governor of Virginia may embody the militia, with the advice of the privy council, and when embodied, shall alone have the direction of the militia under the laws of the country. C. V. Art. 13.

The manner in which the militia of the several states may be called forth for the service of the United States, is prescribed, L. U. S. 3 Cong. c. 101.

The great end of society is, to protect the weakness of individuals, by the united strength of the community: and the principal use of government is, to direct that united strength in the best and most effectual manner, to answer the end proposed. Monarchical government is allowed to be the fittest of any for this purpose: it follows, therefore, from the very end of it's institution, that in a monarchy the military power must be trusted in the hands of the prince.

In this capacity, therefore, of general of the kingdom, the king has the sole power of raising and regulating fleets and armies.33 Of the manner in which they are raised and regulated, I shall speak more, when I come to consider the military state. We are now only to consider the prerogative of enlisting and of governing them: which indeed was disputed and claimed, contrary to all reason and precedent, by the long parliament of king Charles I; but, upon the restoration of his son, was solemnly declared by the statute 13 Car. II. c. 6, to be in the king alone:

for that the sole supreme government and command of the militia within all his majesty's realms and dominions, and of all forces by sea and land, and of all forts and places of strength, ever was and is the undoubted right of his majesty, and his royal predecessors, kings and queens of England; and that both or either house of parliament cannot, nor ought to, pretend to the same.

This statute, it is obvious to observe, extends not only to fleets and armies, but also to forts, and other places of strength, within the realm; the sole prerogative as well of erecting, as manning and governing of which, belongs to the king in his capacity of general of the kingdom: b 34 and all lands were formerly subject to a tax, for building of castles wherever the king

b 2 Inst. 30.

33. These powers are not vested in the president, but in congress. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 8.

34. Congress, only, is vested with authority in these instances. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 8. L. U. S. Sec. 3. Cong. c. P.

thought proper. This was one of the three things, from contributing to the performance of which no lands were exempted; and therefore called by our Saxon ancestors the trinoda necessitas:

scopontis reparatio, arcis constructio, et expeditio contra hostem.c And this they were called upon to do so often, that, as sir Edward Coke from M. Paris assures us,d there were in the time of Henry II 1115, castles subsisting in England. The inconveniencies of which, when granted out to private subjects, the lordly barons of those times, were severely felt by the whole kingdom; for, as William of Newburgh remarks in the reign of king Stephen, "erant in Anglia quodammodo toto reges vel potius tyranni quot domini castellorum:" but it was felt by none more sensibly than by two succeeding princes, king John and king Henry III. And, therefore, the greatest part of them being demolished in the barons' wars, the kings of after-times have been very cautious of suffering them to be rebuilt in a fortified manner: and sir Edward Coke lays it down,e that no subject can build a castle, or house of strength imbattled, or other fortress defensible, without the licence of the king; for the danger which might ensue, if every man at his pleasure might do it.

It is partly upon the same, and partly upon a fiscal foundation, to secure his marine revenue, that the king has the prerogative of appointing ports and havens, or such places only, for persona and merchandize to pass into and out of the realm, as he in his wisdom sees proper.35 By the feodal law all navigable rivers and havens were computed among the regalia,f and were subject to the sovereign of the state. And in England it hath always been holden, that the king is lord of the whole shore,g and particularly is the guardian of the ports and havens, which are the

c Cowel's Interpr. tit, casteilorum operatio. Seld. Jan. Angl. 1. 42. d 2 Inst. 31. f 2 Feud. t. 56. Crag. 1, 15, 15. e 1 Inst. 5. g F. N. B. 113.

35. Congress hath power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 8. The establishment of ports was an incident thereto: the laws of the United States 1 Cong. 2 Sess. c. 35, accordingly established ports. See also, 5 Cong. c. 128.

inlets and gates of the realm:h and therefore, so early as the reign of king John, we find ships seised by the king's officers for putting in at a place that was not a legal port.i These legal ports were undoubtedly at first assigned by the crown; since to each of them a court of portmote is incident,k the jurisdiction of which must flow from the royal authority: the great ports of the sea are also referred to, as well known and established, by statute 4 Hen. IV. c. 20, which prohibits the landing elsewhere under pain of confiscation: and the statute 1 Eliz. c. 11, recites, that the franchise of lading and discharging had been frequently granted by the crown.

But though the king had a power of granting the franchise of havens and ports, yet he had not the power of resumption, or of narrowing and confining their limits when once established; but any person had a right to load or discharge his merchandize in any part of the haven: whereby the revenue of the customs was much impaired and diminished, by fraudulent landings in obscure and private comers. This occasioned the statutes of 1 Eliz. c. 11, and 13, and 14 Car. II. c. 11. §. 14, which enable the crown by commission to ascertain the limits of all ports, and to assign proper wharfs and quays in each port, for the exclusive landing and loading of merchandize.

The erection of beacons, light-houses, and sea-marks, is also a branch of the royal prerogative:36 whereof the first was antiently used in order to alarm the country, in case of the approach of an enemy; and all of them are signally useful in guiding and preserving vessels at sea by night as well as by day. For this purpose the king hath the exclusive power, by commission under his great seal,l to cause them to be erected in fit

h Dav. 9. 56. i Madox. hist. exch. 530.

k 4 Inst. 148. l 3 Inst. 204. 4. Inst. 148.

36. This power, like the former, being one of the incidents attending the right of regulating commerce, belongs also to congress, only, and not to the executive department. They have accordingly exercised it. 1 Cong. 1 Sess. c. 9. 5 Cong. c. 51, &c.

and convenient places m as well upon the lands of the subject as upon the demesnes of the crown: which power is usually vested by letters patent in the office of lord high admiral.n And by statute 8 Eliz. c. 13, the corporation of the trinity-house are impowered to set up any beacons or sea-marks wherever they shall think them necessary; and if the owner of the land or any other person shall destroy them, or shall take down any steeple, tree, or other known sea-mark, he shall forfeit 100l, or in case of inability to pay it, shall be, ipso facto, outlawed.

To this branch of the prerogative may also be referred the power vested in his majesty, by statutes 12 Car. II. c. 4, and 29 Geo. II. c. 16, of prohibiting the exportation of arms or ammunition out of this kingdom, under severe penalties:37 and likewise the right which the king has, whenever he sees proper, of confining his subjects to stay within the realm, or of recalling them from beyond the seas. By the common law,o every man may go out of the realm for whatever cause he pleaseth, without obtaining the king's leave;38 provided he is under no injunction of spying at home: (which liberty was expressly declared in king John's great charter, though left out in that of Henry III) but, because that every man ought of right to defend the king and his realm, therefore, the king at his pleasure may command him by his writ that he go not beyond the seas, or out of the realm, without license; and, if he do the contrary, he shall be punished for disobeying the king's command. Some persons, there antiently were, that, by reason of their stations, were under a per-

m Rot. Claus. 1 Ric. II. m. 42 Pryn. on 4 Inst. 136. n Sid. 158. 4 Inst. 149. o F. N. B. 85.

37. In 1794, congress, by law, prohibited the exportation of arms, &c. from the United States for a year, under severe penalties; and in 1795, they authorised the president to permit the exportation thereof, in certain cases, the former law notwithstanding. L. U. S. 3 Cong. c. 33, and 118. 5 Cong. c. 2.

38. The act of 1783, c. 16. V. L. Edi. 1794, c. 110, expressly recognizes the right of every citizen, not only to depart the state, but to expatriate himself. See p. 137. note 23.

petual prohibition of going abroad without licence obtained;

among which were reckoned all peers, on account of their being counsellors of the crown; all knights, who were bound to defend the kingdom from invasions; all ecclesiastics, who were expressly confined by the fourth chapter of the constitutions of Clarendon, on account of their attachment, in the times of popery, to the see of Rome; all archers and other artificers, lest they should instruct foreigners to rival us in their several trades and manufactures. This was law in times of Briton,p who wrote in the reign of Edward I: and sir Edward Cokeq gives us many instances to this effect, in the time of Edward III. In the succeeding reign, the affair of travelling wore a very different aspect: an act of parliament being made,r forbidding all persons whatever, to go abroad without licence; except only the lords and other great men of the realm; and true and notable merchants; and the king's soldiers. But this act was repealed by the statute 4 Jac. I. c. 1. And at present every body has, or at least assumes, the liberty of going abroad when he pleases. Yet, undoubtedly, if the king, by writ of ne exeat regnum, under his great seal or privy seal, thinks proper to prohibit him from so doing; or if the king sends a writ to any man, when abroad, commanding his return; and in either case the subject disobeys; it is a high contempt of the king's prerogative, for which the offender's lands shall be seised till he return; and then he is liable to fine and imprisonment. s 39

III. Another capacity, in which the king is considered in domestic affairs, is as the fountain of justice and general conservator of the peace of the kingdom.40 By the fountain of jus

p c. 123. q 3 Inst. 175

r 5 Ric. II. c. 2. 8. 1 Hawk. P. C. 22.

39. See page 137, note 23. 3 P. Wms. 312. 3 Brown, 370. 1 Viz. Jun. 96,

40. It was before observed, p. 250. note 12. That the president of the United States, although he is the chief, is not, (like a king of England, according to the commentator) the sole magistrate of the nation. In the United States the Judiciary are a distinct and inde-

tice the law does not mean the author or original, but only the distributor. Justice is not derived from the king, as from his free gift; but he is the steward of the public, to dispense it to whom it is due.t He is not the spring but the reservoir; from whence right and equity are conducted, by a thousand channels, to every individual. The original power of judicature, by the fundamental principles of society, is lodged in the society at large: but as it would be impracticable to render complete justice to every individual, by the people in their collective capacity, therefore, every nation has committed that power to certain select magistrates, who with more ease and expedition can hear and determine complaints; and in England this authority has immemorially been exercised by the king or his substitutes. He, therefore, has alone, the right of erecting courts of judicature: for, though the constitution of the kingdom hath entrusted him with the whole executive power of the laws, it is impossible as well as improper, that he should personally carry into execution this great and extensive trust: it is consequently necessary, that courts should be erected, to assist him in executing this power; and equally necessary, that, if erected, they should be erected by Iris authority. And hence it is, that all jurisdictions of courts are either mediately or immediately derived from the crown, their proceedings run generally in the king's name, they pass under his seal, and are executed by his officers.

It is probable, and almost certain, that in very early times, before our constitution arrived at it's full perfection, our kings

t Ad hoc autem creatus est et electus, ut justitiam faciat universiss. Bract. l. 3. tr. 1. c. 9.

pendent order of magistrates, from the executive. This separation forms the basis of all our republics. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 8. Art. 3. §. 1. Letter from the federal judges to the president of the United States. Appendix, note A. in notis. C. V, Art. 3, 14, 15.

"It is an important principle, which, in the discussion of questions of the present kind, ought never to be lost sight of, that the judiciary of this country is not a subordinate, but co-ordinate branch of the government." per. Patterson, justice of the supreme court of the United States. 2 Dallas, 309.

in person often heard and determined causes between party and party. But at present, by the long and uniform usage of many ages, our kings have delegated their whole judicial power to the judges of their several courts: which are the grand depositaries of the fundamental laws of the kingdom, and have gained a known and stated jurisdiction, regulated by certain and established rules, which the crown itself cannot now alter but by act of parliament.u And, in order to maintain both the dignity and independence of the judges in the superior courts, it is enacted by the statute 13 W. III. c. 2, that their commissions shall be made (not, as formerly, durante bene placito, but) quamdiu bene se gesserint, and their salaries ascertained and established;41 but that it may be lawful to remove them on the address of both houses of parliament. And now, by the noble improvements of that law in the statute of 1 Geo. III. c. 23, enacted at the earnest recommendation of the king himself from the throne, the judges are continued in their offices during their good behaviour, notwithstanding any demise of the crown, (which was formerly heldw immediately to vacate their seats) and their full salaries are absolutely secured to them during the continuance of their commissions; his majesty having been pleased to declare, that he looked upon the independence and uprightness of the judges, as essential to the impartial administration of justice;

as one of the best securities of the rights and liberties of his subjects; and as most conducive to the honour of the crown."x

In criminal proceedings, or prosecutions for offences, it would still be a higher absurdity, if the king personally sate in

w Lord Raym. 747.

u 2 Hawk. P. C. 2. x Com. Journ. 3. Mar. 1761.

41. "The judges both of the supreme and inferior courts shall hold their offices during good behaviour; and shall at stated times receive for their services, a compensation which shall hot be diminished during their continuance in office." C. U. S. Art. 3. The judges of the superior courts in Virginia, likewise hold their office during good behaviour, and the constitution also declares, that they shall have fixed, and adequate salaries. C. V. Art. 14.

judgment; because in regard to these he appears in another capacity, that of prosecutor. All offences are either against the king's peace, or his crown and dignity: and are so laid in every indictment. For though in their consequences they generally seem (except in the case of treason and a very few others) to be rather offences against the kingdom than the king; yet as the public, which is an invisible body, has delegated all it's power and rights, with regard to the execution of the laws, to one visible magistrate, all affronts to that power, and breaches of those rights, are immediately offences against him, to whom they are so delegated by the public. He is therefore the proper person to prosecute for all public offences and breaches of the peace, being the person injured in the eye of the law. And this notion was carried so far in the old Gothic constitution, (wherein the king was bound by his coronation oath to conserve the peace) that in case of any forcible injury offered to the person of a fellow subject, the offender was accused of a kind of perjury, in having violated the king's coronation oath; dicebatur fregisse juramentum regis juratum.y And hence also arises another branch of the prerogative, that of pardoning offences;42 for it is reasonable that he only who is injured should have the power of forgiving. Of prosecutions and pardons I shall treat more at large hereafter; and only mention them here, in this cursory manner, to shew the constitutional grounds of this power of the

y Stiernh. de jure Goth. l. 3. c. 3. A notion somewhat similar to this may be found in the mirror, c. 1. §. 5. And so also, when the chief justice Thorpe was condemned to be hanged for bribery, he was said sacramentum domini regis fregisse. Rot. Parl. 25 Edw. III.

42. The president hath the power of granting reprieves, and pardons for offences against the United States except in cases of impeachment. C. U. S. Art. 2. The governor of Virginia "shall, with the advice of the council of state have the power of granting reprieves, or pardons, except where the prosecution shall have been carried on by the house of delegates, or the law shall otherwise particularly direct; in which cases, no reprieve or pardon shall be granted, but by resolve of the house of delegates," C. V. Art. 9. The governor of Virginia can not grant a pardon in case of treason, 1776, c. 3. V. L. 1794, c. 168.

crown, and how regularly connected all the links are in this vast chain of prerogative.

In this distinct and separate existence of the judicial power in a peculiar body of men, nominated indeed, but not removable at pleasure, by the crown, consists one main preservative of the public liberty; which cannot subsist long in any state, unless the administration of common justice be in some degree separated both from the legislative and also from the executive power.43 Were it joined with the legislative, the life, liberty, and property, of the subject, would be in the hands of arbitrary judges, whose decisions would be then regulated only by their own opinions, and not by any fundamental principles of law; which, though legislators may depart from, yet judges are bound to observe. Were it joined with the executive, this union might soon be an over-balance for the legislative. For which reason, by the statute of 16 Car. I. c. 10, which abolished the court of star-chamber, effectual care is taken to remove all judicial power out of the hands of the king's privy council; who, as then was evident from recent instances, might soon be inclined to pronounce that for law, which was most agreeable to the prince or his officers. Nothing, therefore, is more to be avoided, in a free constitution, than uniting the provinces of a judge and a minister of state. And indeed, that the absolute power, claimed and exercised in a neighbouring nation, is more tolerable than that of the eastern empires, is in great measure owing to their having vested the judicial power in their parliaments, a body separate and distinct from both the legislative and executive: and, if ever that nation recovers it's former liberty, it will owe it to the efforts of those

43. This grand desideratum, if ever completely obtained, may be found in the constitutions of the American states. In the federal government, (according to the true theory of the constitution) it approaches nearer to perfection than in any of the state constitutions that I have examined. The constitution and bill of rights of Virginia expressly declare that these powers shall be separate and distinct, except in some particular instances therein specified; the inconveniences of which are subjects of daily observation. C. U. S. Art. 3. C. V. Art. 3.

assemblies. In Turkey, where every thing is centered in the sultan or his ministers, despotic power is in it's meridian, and wears a more dreadful aspect.

A consequence of this prerogative is the legal ubiquity of the king. His majesty, in the eye of the law, is always present in all his courts, though he cannot personally distribute justice.z His judges are the mirror by which the king's image is reflected. It is the regal office, and not the royal person, that is always present in court, always ready to undertake prosecutions, or pronounce judgment, for the benefit and protection of the subject. And from this ubiquity it follows, that the king can never be nonsuit;a for a nonsuit is the desertion of the suit or action by the non-appearance of the plaintiff in court. For the same reason also, in the forms of legal proceedings, the king is not said to appear by his attorney, as other men do; for in contemplation of law he is always present in court.b

From the same original, of the king's being the fountain of justice, we may also deduce the prerogative of issuing proclamations,44 which is vested in the king alone. These proclamations have then a binding force, when (as sir Edward Coke observesc) they are grounded upon and enforce the laws of the realm. For, though the making of laws is entirely the work of a distinct part, the legislative branch, of the sovereign power, yet the manner, time, and circumstances of putting those laws in execution must

2 Fortesc. c. 8. 2 Inst. 186. a Co. Litt. 139. b Finch. L. 81. c 3 Inst. 162.

44. The right of issuing proclamations, is, perhaps, deducible from that injunction upon the president, contained in C. U. S. Art. 2. "That he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed." Congress, in their addresses to the president, approved of his proclamation of neutrality, June 1793. They have also by repeated acts authorised his issuing proclamations. L. U. S. 3 Cong. c. 17, 41, 101 .... The governor of Virginia was authorised by the act of 1787, c. 34, to give effect to a law by his proclamation; and the act of 1788, c. 78, authorised him to put a period to a law, in the same manner .... Sessions acts, 1787, 1788, and 1796, c. 2, Sec. 45.

frequently be left to the discretion of the executive magistrate. And, therefore, his constitutions or edicts concerning these points, which we call proclamations, are binding upon the subject, where they do not either contradict the old laws or tend to establish new ones; but only enforce the execution of such laws as are already in being, in such manner as the king shall judge necessary. Thus the established law is, that the king may prohibit any of his subjects from leaving the realm: a proclamation, therefore, forbidding this in general for three weeks, by laying an embargo45 upon all shipping in time of war,d will be equally binding as an act of parliament, because founded upon a prior law. But a proclamation to lay an embargo in time of peace upon all vessels laden with wheat (though in the time of a public scarcity) being contrary to law, and particularly to statute 22 Car. II. c. 13, the advisers of such a proclamation and all persons acting under it, found it necessary to be indemnified by a special act of parliament,46 7 Geo. III. c. 7. A proclamation for disarming papists is also binding, being only in execution of what the legislature has first ordained: but a proclamation for allowing arms to papists, or for disarming any protestant subjects, will not bind; because the first would be to assume a dispensing power, the latter a legislative one; to the vesting of either of which in any single person, the laws of England are absolutely strangers. Indeed, by the statutes 31 Hen. VIII. c. 8, it was enacted, that the king's proclamations should have the force of acts of parliament: a statute, which was calculated to introduce the most despotic tyranny; and which must have proved fatal to the liberties of this kingdom, had it not been luckily repealed in the minority of his successor, about five years after.e

d 4 Mod. 177, 179. e Stat. 1 Edw. VI. c. 12.

45. A similar power was granted to the president of the United States for a limited time, L. U. S. 3 Cong. c. 41.

46. Some acts of indemnification were passed by the legislature of Virginia during the revolutionary war. Oct. 1777, c. 6. Nov. 1781, c. 24.

IV. The king is likewise the fountain of honour,47 of office,48 and of privilege:49 and this in a different sense from that wherein he is stiled the fountain of justice; for here he is really the parent of them. It is impossible that government can be maintained without a due subordination of rank; that the people may know and distinguish such as are set over them, in order to yield them their due respect and obedience; and, also, that the officers themselves, being encouraged by emulation and the hopes of superiority, may the better discharge their functions;

and the law supposes, that no one can be so good a judge of their several merits and services, as the king himself who employs them. It has therefore intrusted with him the sole power of conferring dignities and honours, in confidence that he will be

47. No title of nobility can be granted by any state, or by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit, or trust under them, shall, without consent of congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 9, 10. In case any alien, applying to be admitted to citizenship, shall have borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders of nobility in the kingdom or state from which he came, he shall, at the time of his ad-mission, make an express renunciation of his title or order of nobility in the court where his application is made, which shall be recorded in the said court. L. U. S. 3 Cong. c. 85. 7 Cong. 1 Sess. c. 28.

48. The power of appointment to office under the United States, is vested, in general, in the president, by and with the advice and consent of the senate; the right of nomination being in the president. But congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they may think proper, in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. C. U. S. Art. 2. Sec. 3.

The power of appointment in Virginia, in all important cases, is vested in the legislature: the executive and the courts of law have also the power of appointment in some cases. All commissions are tested by the governor. C. V. Art. 14, 15, 18.

49. No man, or set of men, are entitled to exclusive or separate emoluments or privileges from the community, but in consideration of public services; which not being descendible, neither ought the offices of magistrate, legislator, or judge, to be hereditary. Bill of Rights, Art. 4.

stow them upon none, but such as deserve them. And, therefore, all degrees of nobility, of knighthood, and other titles, are received by immediate grant from the crown: either expressed in writing, by writs or letters patent, as in the creations of peers and baronets; or by corporeal investiture, as in the creation of a simple knight.

From the same principle also, arises the prerogative of erecting50 and disposing of offices: for honours and offices are in their nature convertible and synonymous. All offices under the crown carry, in the eye of the law, an honour along with them;

because they imply a superiority of parts and abilities, being supposed to be always filled with those that are most able to execute them. And, on the other hand, all honours, in their original, had duties or offices annexed to them:51 an earl, comes, was the conservator or governor of a county; and a knight, miles, was bound to attend the king in his wars. For the same reason, therefore, that honours are in the disposal of the king, offices ought to be so likewise; and as the king may create new titles, so may he create new offices: but with this restriction, that he cannot create new offices with new fees 52 annexed to them, nor annex new fees to old offices; for this would be a tax upon the

50. The power of erecting offices belongs not to the president of the United States but to congress, since no office under the United States can be created but by the constitution, or by law. The president, vice-president, senators, representatives in congress, and judges of the supreme court, are officers which the constitution requires; ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, are officers which it permits to be occasionally nominated by the president, and appointed by him, by and with the advice and consent of the senate. All other offices, not particularly provided for by the constitution, must be established by law. C. U. S. Art. 2. Sec. 2. The legislature alone can erect any office in Virginia. C. V. Art. 9.

51. "A titled nobility is the most undisputed progeny of feudal barbarism. Titles had, in all nations, denoted offices; it was reserved for Gothic Europe to attach them to ranks." Mackintosh's Def. of the Fr. Rev. p. 70. 3d Edi.

52. Fees of office in the United States are established by law. See L. U. S. 1 Cong. 2 Sess. c. 35, &c. L. V, 1794, c. 115 and 69.

subject, which cannot be imposed but by act of parliament.f Wherefore, in 13 Hen. IV, a new office being created by the king's letters patent for measuring cloths, with a new fee for the same, the letters patent were, on account of the new fee, revoked and declared void in parliament.

Upon the same, or a like reason, the king has also the prerogative of conferring privileges 53 upon private persons. Such as granting place or precedence to any of his subjects, as shall seem good to his royal wisdom:g or such as converting aliens,54 or persons born out of the king's dominions, into denizens; whereby some very considerable privileges of natural-born subjects are conferred upon them. Such also is the prerogative of erecting corporations;55 whereby a number of private persons are united and knit together, and enjoy many liberties, powers, and immunities in their politic capacity, which they were utterly incapable of in their natural. Of aliens, denizens, natural-born, and naturalized subjects, I shall speak more largely in a subsequent chapter; as also of corporations at the close of this book of our commentaries. I now only mention them incidentally, in order to remark the king's prerogative of making them; which is grounded upon this foundation, that the king, having the sole administration of the government in his hands, is the best and the only judge, in what capacities, with what privileges, and under

f 2 Inst. 533. g 4 Inst. 361.

53. See the notes in the preceding page.

54. Congress shall have power to establish an uniform rule of naturalization. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 8. They have done so. L. U. S. 1 Cong. 2 Sess. c. 3, which act was repealed by the act of 3 Cong. c. 85. V. L. 1794, c. 110, shews the mode by which aliens might have been admitted to the rights of citizenship before those periods. And now see L. U. S. 5 Cong. c. 71, and 7 Cong. c. 28.

55. This power, it was presumed, remained with the state legislatures. Congress, however, have, in one instance, shewn, that they considered themselves as invested with it. See L. U. S. 1 Cong. 3 Sess. c. 10. "To incorporate the subscribers to the bank of the United States."

what distinctions, his people are the best qualified to serve, and to act under him. A principle, which was carried so far by the imperial law, that it was determined to be the crime of sacrilege, even to doubt whether the prince had appointed proper officers in the state.h

V. Another light, in which the laws of England consider the king with regard to domestic concerns, is the arbiter of commerce. By commerce, I at present mean domestic commerce only.56 It would lead me into too large a field, if I were to attempt to enter upon the nature of foreign trade, it's privileges, regulations, and restrictions; and would be also quite beside the purpose of these commentaries, which are confined to the laws of England: whereas no municipal laws can be sufficient to order and determine the very extensive and complicated affairs of traffic and merchandize; neither cad they have a proper authority for this purpose. For, as these are transactions carried on between subjects of independent states, the municipal laws of one will not be regarded by the other. For which reason the affairs of commerce are regulated by a law of their own, called the law merchant or lex mercatoria, which all nations agree in and take notice of. And in particular, it is held to be part of the law of England, which decides the causes of merchants by the general rules which obtain in all commercial countries; and that often even in matters relating to domestic trade, as for instance, with regard to the drawing, the acceptance, and the transfer, of inland bills of exchange.i

h Disputare de principali judicio non oportet; sacrilegii enim instar est, dubitare anis dignus sit, quem, elegerit imperatur. C. 9, 29, 3.

i Co. Litt. 172. Ld. Raym. 181, 1542.

56. Congress have power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes. C. U. S. Art. 1. Sec. 8. The regulation of domestic commerce, it is presumed, remains with the states respectively, except as to the right of regulating the value of coin, and the standard of weights and measures. Ib. Amendts. C. U. S. Art. 12.

With us in England, the king's prerogative, so far as it relates to mere domestic commerce, will fall principally under the following articles.

First, the establishment of public marts, or places of buying and selling, such as markets and fairs, with the tolls thereunto belonging.57 These can only be set up by virtue of the king's grant, or by long and immemorial usage and prescription, which presupposes such a grant.k The limitation of these public resorts, to such time and such place as may be most convenient for the neighbourhood, forms a part of economics, or domestic polity; which, considering the kingdom as a large family, and the king as the master of it, he clearly has a right to dispose and order as he pleases.

Secondly, the regulation of weights and measures.58 These, for the advantage of the public, ought to be universally the same throughout the kingdom; being the general criterions which reduce all things to the same or an equivalent value. But, as weight and measure are things in their nature arbitrary and uncertain, it is therefore expedient that they be reduced to some fixed rule or standard: which standard it is impossible to fix by any written law or oral proclamation; for no man can, by words only, give another an adequate idea of a foot-rule, or a pound-weight. It is, therefore; necessary to have recourse to some visible, palpable, material standard; by forming a comparison with which, all

k 2 Inst. 220.

57. It may be presumed, that these powers belong exclusively to the state legislatures. Amdts. C. U. S. Art. 12. They have been repeatedly exercised by the legislature of Virginia.

58. the regulation of weights and measures belongs to congress. C. U. S. Art. 1. No law has yet been passed on the subject. In Virginia, the act of 1734, c. 1, continued and enforced by the act of 1794, c. 140, until congress shall make provision on the subject, establishes the English standards. For the principles upon which a general standard in these respects may be obtained, the student may consult the report of the secretary of state (Mr. Jefferson) to congress, on the subject, July 4, 1790.

weights and measures may be reduced to one uniform size: and the prerogative of fixing this standard our antient law vested in the crown, as in Normandy it belonged to the duke.l This standard was originally kept at Winchester: and we find in the laws of king Edgar,m near a century before the conquest, an injunction that the one measure, which was kept at Winchester, should be observed throughout the realm. Most nations have regulated the standard of measures of length by comparison with the parts of the human body; as the palm, the hand, the span, the foot, the cubit, the ell, (ulna, or arm) the pace, and the fathom. But, as these are of different dimensions in men of different proportions, our antient historians" inform us, that a new standard of longitudinal measure was ascertained by king Henry the first; who commanded that the ulna or antient ell, which answers to the modern yard, should be made of the exact length of his own arm. And, one standard of measures of length being gained, all others are easily derived from thence; those of greater length by multiplying, those of less by subdividing, that original standard. Thus, by the statute called compositio ulnarum et perticarum, five yards and a half make a perch: and the yard is subdivided into three feet, and each foot into twelve inches; which inches will be each of the length of three grains of barley. Superficial measures are derived by squaring those of length; and measures of capacity by cubing them. The standard of weights was originally taken from corns of wheat, whence the lowest denomination of weights we have is still called a grain; thirty-two of which are directed, by the statute called compositio mensurarum, to compose a pennyweight, whereof twenty make an ounce, twelve ounces a pound, and so upwards. And upon these principles the first standards were made; which, being originally so fixed by the crown, their subsequent regulations have been generally made by the king in parliament. Thus, under king Richard I, in his parliament holden at Westminster, A. D. 1197, it was ordained that there should be only one weight and one measure throughout the kingdom, and that the custody of the assise or standard of weights and measures should be committed to certain persons in

1 Gr. Coustum. c. 16. m cap. 8. n Will. Mamsb. in vita Hen. I: Spelm. Hen. 1. apud Wilkins, 299.

every city and borough;o from whence the antient office of the king's aulnager seems to have been derived, whose duty it was, for a certain fee, to measure all cloths made for sale, till the office was abolished by the statute 11 and 12 W. III. c. 20. In king John's time this ordinance of king Richard was frequently dispensed with for money;p which occasioned a provision to be made for inforcing it, in the great charters of king John and his son.q These original standards were called pondus regis,r and mensura domini regis;s and are directed by a variety of subsequent statutes to be kept in the exchequer, and all weights and measures to be made conformable thereto.t But, as sir Edward Coke observes,u though this hath so often, by authority of parliament, been enacted, yet it could never be effected; so forcible is custom with the multitude.

Thirdly, as money is the medium of commerce, it is the king's prerogative, as the arbiter of domestic commerce, to give it authority or make it current. Money is an universal medium, or common standard, by comparison with which the value of all merchandize may be ascertained: or it is a sign, which represents the respective values of all commodities. Metals are well calculated for this sign, because they are durable and are capable of many subdivisions; and a precious metal is still better calculated for this purpose, because it is the most portable. A metal is also the most proper for a common measure, because it can easily be reduced to the same standard in all nations: and every particular nation fixes on it it's own impression, that the weight and standard (wherein consists the intrinsic value) may both be known by inspection only.

As the quantity of precious metals increases, that is, the more of them there is extracted from the mine, this universal medium or common sign will sink in value, and grow less pre-

o Hoved. Matth. Paris. p Hoved. A.. D. 1201.

q 9 Hen. 3, c. 25.

r Plac. 35 Edw. I. apud Cowel's interpr. tit. pondus regis.

s Flet. 2. 12. t 14 Edw. III. st. 1. c. 12. 25 Edw. III. st. 5. c. 10. 16 Ric. II. c. 3. 8 Hen. VI. c. 5. 11 Hen. VI. c. 8. 11 Hen. VII. c. 4. 22 Car. II. c. 8. u Inst. 41.

cious. Above a thousand millions of bullion are calculated to have been imported into Europe from America within less than three centuries; and the quantity is daily increasing. The consequence is, that more money must be given now for the same commodity than was given an hundred years ago .... And, if any accident were to diminish the quantity of gold and silver, their value would proportionably rise. A horse, that was formerly worth ten pounds, is now perhaps worth twenty and, by any failure of current specie, the price may be reduced to what it was. Yet is the horse in reality neither dearer nor cheaper at one time than another: for, if the metal which constitutes the coin was formerly twice as scarce as at present, the commodity was then as dear at half the price, as now it is at the whole.

The coining of money is in all states the act of the sovereign power;59 for the reason just mentioned, that it's value may be known on inspection. And with respect to coinage in general, there are three things to be considered therein; the materials, the impression, and the denomination.

With regard to the materials, sir Edward Coke lays it down,w that the money of England must either be of gold or silver:60 and none other was ever issued by the royal authority till 1672, when copper farthings and half-pence were coined by king Charles the second, and ordained by proclamation to be

w 2 Inst. 577.

59. Congress have power to coin money, and to regulate the value thereof. C. U. S. Art. 1, §. 8. See the act for establishing a mint, and regulating the coins of the United States. 2 Cong. c. 15. No state shall coin money, emit bills of credit, or make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts. C. U. S. Art. 1, §. 10.

60. Only the gold and silver coins of the United States are made a legal tender. 2 Cong. c. 15, §. 16. Those of full weight at their respective values, as declared in the act; those of less than full weight, in proportion to their respective weights. Ibid.

current in all payments, under the value of sixpence, and not, otherwise. But this copper coin is not upon the same footing with the other in many respects, particularly with regard to the offence of counterfeiting it.61 And, as to the silver coin, it is enacted by statute 14 Geo. III. c. 42, that no tender of payment in silver money, exceeding twenty-five pounds at one time, shall be a sufficient tender in law, for more than its value by weight, at the rate of 5s 2d. an ounce.

As to the impression, the stamping thereof is the unquestionable prerogative of the crown: for, though divers bishops and monasteries had formerly the privilege of coining money, yet, as sir Matthew Hale observes, x this was usually done by special grant from the king, or by prescription which supposes one, and therefore was derived from, and not in derogation of, the royal prerogative. Besides that they had only the profit of the coinage, and not the power of instituting either the impression or denomination; but had usually the stamp sent them from the exchequer.

The denomination, or the value for which the coin is to pass current,62 is likewise in the breast of the king; and if any unusual pieces are coined, that value must be ascertained by proclamation. In order to fix the value, the weight, and the fine-

x 1 His. P. c. 191.

61. If any gold or silver coin of the United States be debased through the default of any person employed in the mint, for the purpose of profit or gain, or otherwise, with a fraudulent intent; or the metal or coin committed to their charge be embezzled by them, it shall be deemed felony in the person offending, and he shall suffer death. L. U. S. 2 Cong. c. 15, §. 19.

The money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units, dismes, or tenths, cents, or hundredths, and milles, or thousandths, in decimal proportions, each to the other. L. U. S. 2 Cong. c. 15, §. 20. The money of account of the state of Virginia corresponds therewith. L. V. Edi. 1794, c. 111.

62. The denominations of the coins of the United States are as follows:

ness of the metal are to be taken into consideration together. When a given weight of gold or silver is of a given fineness, it is then of the true standard, x 63 and called esterling metal, or

x This standard hath been frequently varied in former times; but hath for many years past been thus invariably settled. The pound troy of gold, consisting of twenty-two carats (or twenty- four parts) fine, and two of alloy, is divided into forty-four guineas and an half of the present value of 21s. each. And the pound troy of silver, consisting of eleven ounces and two pennyweights pure, and eighteen pennyweights alloy, is divided into sixty-two shillings. (See Folkes on English coins).

TABLE OF COINS IN THE UNITED STATES.

63. The standard of all gold coins of the United States shall be eleven parts of pure gold, and one of alloy, of silver and copper, the proportion of silver not exceeding one half. The standard of all silver coins, shall be 1485 parts of fine to 179 parts of alloy;

which alloy shall be wholly of copper. And the proportion between pure gold and pure silver, shall be as fifteen to one, in value, L. U. S. 2 Cong. c. 15, 46. The dollar of the United States is of the same value as a Spanish milled dollar. Ibid.

sterling; a name for which there are various reasons given,y but none of them entirely satisfactory. And of this sterling or esterling metal all the coin of the kingdom must be made, by the statute 25 Edw. III. c. 13. So that the king's prerogative seemeth not to extend to the debasing or inhancing the value of the coin, below or above the sterling value:z though sir Matthew Halea appears to be of another opinion. The king may also, by his proclamation, legitimate foreign coin, and make it current here;64 declaring at what value it shall be taken in payments.b

y Spelm. Gloss. 303. Dufresne, III. 165. The most plausible opinion seems to be that adopted by those two etymologists, that the name was derived from the Esterlingi, or Easterlings; as those Saxons were antiently called, who inhabited that district of Germany, now occupied by the Hanse-towns and their appendages, the earliest traders in modern Europe.

z 2 Inst, 577. a I Hal. P. C. 194. b Ibid. 197.

64. This power belongs, exclusively to congress. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 8. See the act regulating the value of foreign coin. L. U. S. 2 Cong. c. 49. by which they are to pass as current money within the United States, at the following rates.

Gold coins of Great-Britain, and Por- 100 cents for every 27 tugal at their present standard, grains.

Gold coins of France, Spain, and it's 100 cents for every 27.4 dominions at their present standard. grains. Spanish milled dollars, 100 cents, weighing 17 dwts. 7 grains. Crowns of France, 110 cents, weighing 18 dwts. 17 grains.

The rates of foreign currency, as estimated at the custom-house, for the purpose of ascertaining the ad valorem duties on foreign goods are as follows: 1 Cong. 2 Sess. c. 35. §. 39:

Dols. Cts. The pound sterling of Great Britain .......... 4 44

The livre tournois of France ......... 0 18.5

The florin, or guilder of the United Netherlands ..... 0 39 The mark banco, of Hamburgh ........ 0 33 1-3

The rix dollar of Denmark, .......... 1 00

The rial of plate, of Spain, ............ 0 10

The millree of Portugal ............ 1 24

The pound sterling of Ireland .......... 4 10 The tale of China ......... 1 48 The pagoda of India ............. 1 94 The rupee of Bengal ........... 0 55.5

See also, L. U. S. 5 Cong. c. 34. §. 39, and 7 Cong. c. 38.

But this, I apprehend, ought to be by comparison with the standard of our own coin; otherwise the consent of parliament will be necessary. There is at present no such legitimated money;

Portugal coin being only current by private consent, so that any one who pleases may refuse to take it in payment. The king may also at any time decry, or cry down, any coin of the kingdom, and make it no longer current. c 65

V. The king is, lastly, considered by the laws of England as the head and supreme governor of the national church.66

c 1 Hal. P. C. 197.

65. All copper coins, except cents and half cents, were cried down by congress. L. U. S. 2 Cong. c. 39.

66. "The faculties of man have hitherto in all countries, been more or less cramped by the interference of civil authority, in matters of speculation, by tyrannical laws against heresy and schism, and by slavish hierarchies, and religious establishments. It is above all things that no such fetters on reason should be admitted into America. I observe, with inexpressible satisfaction, that at present they have no existence there. In this respect the governments of the United States are liberal to a degree that is unparalleled. They have the distinguished honour of being the first states under heaven, in which forms of government have been established favourable to universal liberty." Doctor Price's observations on the importance of the American revolution, p. 18. Lond. 1785. This venerable patriot probably lived to see that article of the amendments to the federal constitution, which guarantees to the United States a perpetual exemption from tyranny over the mind.

"No religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States," C. U. S. Art. 6.

"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." Amendments to the C. U. S. Art. 3.

"Religion, or the duty which we owe to our Creator, and the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence, and therefore all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience." Bill of Rights, Art 16.

"No man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry, whatsoever; nor shall be enforced,

To enter into reasons upon which this prerogative is founded is matter rather of divinity than of law. I shall, therefore, only observe that by statute 26 Hen. VIII. c. 1, (reciting that the king's majesty, justly and rightfully, is and ought to be the supreme head of the church of England; and so had been recognized by the clergy of this kingdom in their convocation) it is enacted, that the king shall be reputed the only supreme head in earth of the church of England, and shall have, annexed to the imperial crown of this realm, as well the title and stile thereof, as all jurisdictions, authorities and commodities, to the said dignity of supreme head of the church appertaining. And another statute to the same purport was made, 1 Eliz. c. 1.

In virtue of this authority the king convenes, prorogues, restrains, regulates, and dissolves all ecclesiastical synods or convocations. This was an inherent prerogative of the crown, long before the time of Henry VIII, as appears by the statute 8 Henry VI. c. 1, and the many authors both lawyers and historians, vouched by sir Edward Coke.d So that the statute 25 Henry VIII. c. 19, which restrains the convocation from making or putting in execution any canons repugnant to the king's prerogative, or the laws, customs, and statutes of the realm, was merely declaratory of the old common law:e that part of it only being new, which makes the king's royal assent actually necessary to the validity of every canon. The convocation or ecclesiastical synod, in England, diners considerably in it's constitution from the synods of other Christian kingdoms: those consisting wholly of bishops; whereas with us the convocation is the miniature of a parliament, wherein the archbishop presides with regal state; the upper house of bishops represents the house of lords; and the lower house, composed of represen-

d 4 Inst. 322, 323. e 13 Rep. 72.

restrained, molested, or burthened, in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief;

but all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain their opinions in matters of religion, and the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities." V. L. Edi. 1794, c. 20. See also, Appendix, note G. Vol. I. part 2.

tatlves of the several dioceses at large, and of each particular chapter therein resembles the house of commons with it's knights of the shire and burgesses.f This constitution is said to be owing to the policy of Edward I: who thereby, at one and the same time, let in the inferior clergy to the privileges of forming ecclesiastical canons, (which before they had not) and also introduced a method of taxing ecclesiastical benefices, by consent of convocation.g

From this prerogative also, of being the head of the church, arises the king's right of nomination to vacant bishopricks, and certain other ecclesiastical preferments; which will more properly be considered when we come to treat of the clergy. I shall only here observe, that this is now done in consequence of the statute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20.

As head of the church, the king is likewise the dernier resort in all ecclesiastical causes; an appeal lying ultimately to him in chancery from the sentence of every ecclesiastical judge: which right was restored to the crown by statute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, as will more fully be shewn hereafter.67

f In the diet of Sweden, where the ecclesiastics form one of the branches of the legislature, the chamber of the clergy resembles the convocation of England. It is composed of the bishops and superintendants; and also of deputies, one of which is chosen by every ten parishes or rural deanry. Mod. Un. Hist. xxxiii. 18.

g Gilb. Hist. of Exch. c. 4.

67. We have now attended the student through the whole course of the commentator's illustration of the principles of the British constitution and government; the several constituent parts; their respective rights, privileges, and prerogatives; in the course of which we have not only endeavoured to shew the correspondence, or disagreement, between those constituent parts, and the several branches of our own governments; but also minutely pointed out such of those powers, as have been retained in our own constitutions; or have been altered or modified, so as to adapt them to the principles of a representative democracy; or expunged and annihilated, as useless, or pernicious in such a government. We have also occa-

sionally shewn in what manner, and by whom, the powers retained in our constitutions are to be exercised. In the progress of which, the student cannot fail to have remarked how many of the most important prerogatives of the British crown, are transferred from the executive authority, in the United States, to the supreme national council in congress assembled.

CHAPTER THE EIGHTH.

OF THE KING'S RE VENUE.1

HAVING, in the preceding chapter, considered at large those branches of the king's prerogative, which contribute to his royal dignity, and constitute the executive power of the government, we proceed now to examine the king's fiscal prerogatives, or such as regard his revenue; which the British constitution hath vested in the royal person, in order to support his dignity, and maintain his power: being a portion which each subject contributes of his property, in order to secure the remainder.

This revenue is either ordinary, or extraordinary. The king's ordinary revenue is such, as has either subsisted, time out of mind in the crown; or else has been granted by parliament, by way of purchase or exchange for such of the king's inherent hereditary revenues, as were found inconvenient to the subject.

1. Congress have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for the common defence, and general welfare of the United States: but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uniform throughout the United States. But no capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census, or enumeration directed by the constitution to be taken .... nor shall any tax or duty be laid on articles exported from any state. C. U. S. Art. 1. §. 8, 9.

Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 7.

No man can be deprived of his property for public uses, without his own consent, or that of his representatives. Bill of Rights, Article 6.

When I say that it has subsisted, time out of mind, in the crown, I do not mean that the king is at present in the actual possession of the whole of this revenue. Much, nay, the greatest pan of it, is, at this day, in the hands of subjects; to whom it has been granted out, from time to time, by the kings of England: which has rendered the crown in some measure dependent on the people for it's ordinary support and subsistence. So that I must be obliged to recount, as part of the royal revenue, what lords of manors and other subjects frequently look upon to be their own absolute inherent rights; because they are and have been vested in them and their ancestors, for ages, though, in reality, originally derived from the grants of our antient princes.

I. The first of the king's ordinary revenues, which I shall take notice of, is of an ecclesiastical kind; (as are also the three succeeding ones), viz. the custody of the temporalties of bishops: by which are meant all the lay revenues, lands, and tenements, (in which is included his barony), which belong to an archbishop's or bishop's see. And these upon the vacancy of the bishoprick are, immediately, the right of the king, as a consequence of his prerogative in church matters; whereby he is considered as the founder of all archbishopricks and bishopricks, to whom, during the vacancy they revert.2 And for the same reason, before the dissolution of abbeys, the king had the custody of the temporalties of all such abbeys and priories, as were of royal foundation (but not of those founded by subjects), on the death of the abbot or prior.a Another reason may also be given, why the policy of the law hath vested this custody in the king; because, as the successor is not known, the lands and possessions of the see would be liable to spoil and devastation, if no one had a property therein. Therefore, the law has given the king, not the temporalties, themselves, but the custody of the temporalties, till such time, as a successor is appointed; with power of taking to himself, all the intermediate

a 2 Inst. 15.

2. This branch of revenue never had existence in the United States.

profits, without any account of the successor; and with the right of presenting (which the crown very frequently exercises) to such benefices and other preferments as fall within the time of vacation.b This revenue is of so high a nature, that it could not be granted out to a subject, before, or even after, it accrued; but now by the statute 15 Edw. III. st. 4. c. 4. and 5, the king may, after the vacancy, lease the temporalties to the dean and chapter; saving to himself all advowsons, escheats, and the like. Our antient kings, and particularly William Rufus, were not only remarkable for keeping the bishopricks a long time vacant, for the sake of enjoying the temporalties, but also committed horrible waste on the woods and other parts of the estate;

and to crown all, would never, when the see was filled up, restore to the bishop his temporalties again, unless he purchased them at an exorbitant price. To remedy which, king Henry the first,c granted a charter at the beginning of his reign, promising neither to sell, nor let to farm, nor take any thing from the domains of the church, till the successor was installed. And it was made one of the articles of the great charter,d that no waste should be committed in the temporalties of bishopricks, neither should the custody of them be sold. The same is ordained by the statute of Westminster the first;e and the statute 14 Edw. III. st. 4. c. 4, (which permits, as we have seen, a lease to the dean and chapter), is still more explicit in prohibiting the other exactions. It was also a frequent abuse, that the king would, for trifling, or no causes, seise the temporalties of bishops, even during their lives, into his own hands: but this is guarded against by statute 1 Edw. III. st. 2. c. 2.

This revenue of the king, which was formerly very considerable, is now by a customary indulgence almost reduced to nothing: for, at present, as soon as the new bishop is consecrated and confirmed, he usually receives the restitution of his temporalties quite entire, and untouched, from the king; and at the same time does homage to his sovereign: and then, and not sooner, he has a fee simple in his bishoprick, and may maintain an action for the profits.f

b Stat 17 Edw. II. c. 14. F. N. B. 32. c Matt. Paris. d 9 Hen. III. c. 5. c 3 Edw. I. c. 21.

f Co Litt. 67, 341.

II. The king is entitled to a corody, as the law calls it, out of every bishoprick, that is, to send one of his chaplains to be maintained by the bishop, or to have a pension allowed him till the bishop promotes him to a benefice.g This is also in the nature of an acknowledgment to the king, as founder of the see, since he had formerly the same corody or pension from every abbey or priory of royal foundation.3 It is, I apprehend, now fallen into total disuse; though sir Matthew Hale, says,h that it is due of common right, and that no prescription will discharge it.

III. The king also (as was formerly observedi) is entitled to all the tithes arising in extraparochial places:k 4 though perhaps it may be doubted how far this article, as well as the last, can be properly reckoned a part of the king's own royal revenue; since a corody supports only his chaplains, and these extraparochial tithes are held under an implied trust, that the king will distribute them for the good of the clergy in general.

IV. The next branch consists in the first fruits, and tenths, of all spiritual preferments in the kingdom, both of which I shall consider together.5

These were originally a part of the papal usurpations over the clergy of this kingdom; first introduced by Pandulph the pope's legate, during the reigns of king John and Henry the third, in the see of Norwich; and afterwards attempted to be made universal by the popes Clement V and John XXII, about the beginning of the fourteenth century. The first-fruits, pri

g F. N. B. 230. i Page 113.

h Notes on F. N. B. above cited. k 2 Inst. 647.

3. This, as well as the former never had existence in the United States.

4. This stands upon the same footing at present as the two former.

5. Obsolete, in the United States.

mitiae, or annates, were the first year's whole profits of the spiritual preferment; according to a rate or valor made under the direction of pope Innocent IV by Walter bishop of Norwich, in 38 Hen. III, and afterwards advanced in value by commission from pope Nicholas III. A. D. 1292, 20 Edw. I;l which valuation of pope Nicholas is still preserved in the exchequer.m The tenths, or decimae, were the tenth part of the annual profit of each living by the same valuation; which was also claimed by the holy see, under no better pretence than a strange misapplication of that precept of the Levitical law, which directs,n that the Levites "should offer the tenth part of their tithes as a heave-offering to the Lord, and give it to Aaron the high priest." But this claim of the pope met with a vigorous resistance from the English parliament: and a variety of acts were passed to prevent and restrain it, particularly the statute 6 Hen. IV. c. 1, which calls it a horrible mischief and damnable custom. But the popish clergy, blindly devoted to the will of a foreign master, still kept it on foot; sometimes more secretly, sometimes more openly and avowedly: so that in the reign of Henry VIII, it was computed, that in the compass of fifty years 800, 000 ducats had been sent to Rome for first-fruits only .... And, as the clergy expressed this willingness to contribute so much of their income to the head of the church, it was thought proper (when in the same reign the papal power was abolished, and the king was declared the head of the church of England) to annex this revenue to the crown; which was done by statute 36 Hen. VIII. c, 3, (confirmed by statute 1 Eliz. c. 4,) and a new valor beneficiorum was then made, by which the clergy are at present rated.

By these last mentioned statutes all vicarages under ten pounds a year, and all rectories under ten marks, are discharged from the payment of first-fruits: and if, in such livings as continue chargeable with this payment, the incumbent lives but half a year, he shall pay only one quarter of his first-fruits; if but one whole year, then half of them; if a year and a half, three

1 F. N. B. 176. n Numb. xviii. 26.

m 3 Inst. 154.

quarters; and if two years, then the whole: and not otherwise. Likewise by the statute 27 Hen. VIII. c. 8, no tenths are to be paid for the first year, for then the first-fruits are due: and by other statutes of queen Anne, in the fifth and sixth years of her reign, if a benefice be under fifty pounds per annum, clear yearly value, it shall be discharged of the payment of first-fruits and tenths.

Thus the richer clergy, being, by the criminal bigotry of their popish predecessors, subjected at first to a foreign exaction were afterwards, when that yoke was shaken off, liable to a like misapplication of their revenues, through the rapacious disposition of the then reigning monarch: till at length the piety of queen Anne restored to the church what had been thus indirectly taken from it. This she did, not by remitting the tenths and first-fruits entirely; but, in a spirit of the truest equity, by applying these superfluities of the larger benefices to make up the deficiencies of the smaller. And to this end she granted her royal charter, which was confirmed by the statute 2 Ann. c. 11, whereby all the revenue of first-fruits and tenths is vested in trustees for ever, to form a perpetual fund for the augmentation of poor livings. This is usually called queen Anne's bounty; which has been still farther regulated by subsequent statutes.o

V. The next branch of the king's ordinary revenue (which, as well as the subsequent branches, is of a lay or temporal nature) consists in the rents and profits of the demesne lands of the crown. These demesne lands, terrae dominicales regis, being either the share reserved to the crown at the original distribution of landed property, or such as came to it afterwards by forfeitures or other means, were antiently very large and extensive;

comprising divers manors, honors, and lordships;6 the tenants

o 5 Ann. c. 24. 6 Ann. c. 27. 1 Geo. I. st. 2. c. 12. 3 Geo. I. c. 10.

6. Large cessions of territory have been made to the United States by several of the states in the union. See V. L. Edi. 1794, c.

of which had very peculiar privileges, as will be shewn in the second book of these commentaries, when we speak of the tenure in antient demesne. At present they are contracted within a very narrow compass, having been almost entirely granted away to private subjects. This has occasioned the parliament frequently to interpose; and particularly, after king William III had greatly impoverished the crown, an act passed,p whereby all future grants or leases from the crown for any longer term than thirty-one years or three lives, are declared to be void; except with regard to houses, which may be granted for fifty years .... And no reversionary lease can be made, so as to exceed, together with the estate in being, the same term of three lives or thirty-one years: that is where there is a subsisting lease, of which there are twenty years still to come, the king cannot grant a future interest, to commence after the expiration of the former, for any longer term than eleven years. The tenant must also be made liable to be punished for committing waste; and the usual rent must be reserved, or, where there has usually been no rent, one third of the clear yearly value.q The misfortune is, that this act was made too late, after almost every valuable possession of the crown had been granted away for ever, or else upon very long leases; but may be of some benefit to posterity, when those leases come to expire.

VI. Hither might have been referred the advantages which used to arise to the king from the profits of his military tenures, to which most lands in the kingdom were subject, till the statute 12 Car. II. c. 24, which, in great measure, abolished them all:

p 1 Ann. st. 1. c. 7.

q In like manner by the civil law, the inheritances or fundi patrimoniales of the imperial crown could not be alienated, but only let to farm. Cod. l. 11. t. 61.

7. Congress have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the same, or other property belonging to the United States. C. U. S. Art. 4. §. 3. L. U. S. 4 Cong. c. 30. See also the ordinance for the government of the territory of the United States, north-west of the river Ohio, July 13, 1787. Appendix to Brown's Edi. of the L. U. S. page 101, and appendix, note D. Vol. I, part I.

the explication of the nature of which tenures must be postponed to the second book of these commentaries.7 Hither also might have been referred the profitable prerogative of purveyance and pre-emption: which was a right enjoyed by the crown of buying up provisions and other necessaries, by the intervention of the king's purveyors, for the use of his royal houshold, at an appraised valuation, in preference to all others, and even without consent of the owner: and also of forcibly impressing the carriages and horses of the subject, to do the king's business on the public roads, in the conveyance of timber, baggage, and the like, however inconvenient to the proprietor, upon paying him a settled price. A prerogative, which prevailed pretty generally throughout Europe, during the scarcity of gold and silver, and the high valuation of money consequential thereupon. In those early times, the king's houshold (as well as those of inferior lords) were supported by specific renders of corn, and other victuals, from the tenants of the respective demesnes; and there was also a continual market kept at the palace gate to furnish viands for the royal use.r And this answered all purposes, in those ages of simplicity, so long as the king's court continued in any certain place. But when it removed from one part of the kingdom to another (as was formerly very frequently done), it was found necessary to send purveyors, beforehand, to get together a sufficient quantity of provisions and other necessaries for the houshold: and, lest the unusual demand should raise them to an exorbitant price, the powers before mentioned were vested in these purveyors: who, in process of time, very greatly abused their authority, and became a great oppression to the subject, though of little advantage to the crown; ready money in open market (when the royal residence was more permanent, and specie began to be plenty) being found, upon experience, to be the best proveditor of any. Wherefore, by degrees, the powers of purveyance have declined, in foreign countries, as well as

r 4 Inst. 273.

7. Obsolete, in the United States, all the lands even under the royal government, being held in free and common socage, by virtue of the charters granted to the states respectively.

in our own: and particularly were abolished in Sweden by